FRIENDS 


A  COMPLETE  •  BIRD  -BGDK 
FOR-AMERICANS 


LLi 


BER'          'RAF  TON 


BIOL^SY 
LIBRARY 

f 


ft?  Gilbert  JE>.  Crafton 

PUBLISHED   BY 

HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 


BIRD  FRIENDS.     Illustrated. 

METHODS    OF    ATTRACTING    BIRDS       Illus- 
trated. 


BIRD  FRIENDS 


A   BIRD   GARDEN 


BIRD*  FRIENDS 

A  COMPLETE  BIRD  BOOK 
FOR  AMERICANS^ 


GILBERT  H.TRAFTON 

WITH    ILLUSTRATIONS 


BOSTON  AND  NEWYORK. 
HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN  COMPANY 

&v»ct  sit>«  fttts 


BIOLOGY 

LIBRARY 

G 


COPYRIGHT,    1916,    BY  GILBERT  H.  TRAFTON 
ALL   RIGHTS  RESERVED 

Published  September  igtb 


TO 
MY   SON   LEROY 

PATIENT,  CHEERFUL,  UNCOMPLAINING 

DURING  LONG-CONTINUED  AFFLICTION 

THIS  BOOK  IS  AFFECTIONATELY 

DEDICATED 


364842 


PREFACE 

THESE  pages  are  written,  not  only  for  the  bird- 
lover,  but  also  for  the  general  reader  who  has  no 
special  interest  in  birds,  but  who  is  interested  in 
those  matters  that  pertain  to  community  welfare. 

Most  of  the  topics  presented  in  this  book  have 
been  treated  in  an  entertaining  way  in  many  excel- 
lent bird  books,  but  most  of  these  books  cover  only 
one  or  two  phases  of  bird  life,  so  that  a  person  de- 
siring to  be  generally  informed  on  birds  must  secure 
several  books.  The  bird  enthusiast  is  glad  to  do  this, 
but  not  the  average  citizen,  who  has  no  more  inter- 
est in  birds  than  in  many  other  topics.  It  is  highly 
desirable  that  every  citizen  should  be  informed  on 
the  need  of  conserving  bird  life  as  one  of  our  valu- 
able national  resources.  It  has  been  the  purpose  of 
the  author  to  gather  within  one  set  of  covers  a  brief 
discussion  of  the  essential  facts  concerning  bird  life 
that  are  of  general  interest,  which  are  now  scattered 
through  many  books,  bulletins,  and  magazines. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  developments  of  the 
past  few  years  has  been  the  rapid  strides  made  in 
the  cause  of  bird-protection.  Much  of  this  work  has 
been  of  such  recent  origin  that  information  regard- 


viii  PREFACE 

ing  these  various  protective  agencies  and  their  work 
can  be  found  only  in  recent  periodicals.  An  effort 
has  been  made  in  these  pages  to  bring  together  some 
of  the  more  valuable  of  this  material. 

The  author  has  also  presented  for  the  general 
reader  a  brief  summary  of  the  investigations  of  the 
food  habits  of  our  common  birds,  made  by  the 
Bureau  of  Biological  Survey,  the  reports  of  which 
were  originally  published  in  bulletins  to  which  most 
readers  do  not  have  access. 

The  author  has  had  especially  in  mind  one  large 
group  of  readers,  who  have  something  of  a  profes- 
sional interest  in  this  subject,  namely,  the  teachers 
of  the  country,  who  are  now  teaching  children  about 
birds  in  nature-study  and  through  bird  clubs.  The 
last  chapter  has  been  specially  prepared  for  their 
use,  in  the  hope  that  it  may  prove  helpful  to  them  in 
teaching  this  subject  to  children. 

The  author  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  to 
those  who  have  so  kindly  looked  over  portions  of 
the  manuscript  and  given  suggestions  thereon:  to 
the  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey  for  looking  over 
Chapters  VII  to  XI  inclusive;  to  Mr.  Ernest  Inger- 
soll  for  reading  Chapters  XVI,  XVII,  and  XVIII;  to 
Mr.  Edward  H.  Forbush  for  reading  Chapters  I  to 
VI,  inclusive,  and  XII  to  XV,  inclusive;  and  to  Miss 
Helen  M.  Reynolds  for  suggestions  on  Chapter 
XXIII.  Special  thanks  are  due  to  Mr.  Forbush  for 
his  courtesy  in  sending  advance  sheets  of  his  annual 


PREFACE  ix 

reports  and  of  his  bulletin  on  the  Domestic  Cat,  from 
both  of  which  much  valuable  material  was  obtained. 
The  entire  manuscript  has  been  read  by  Mr. 
Francis  H.  Allen,  who  has  given  many  valuable 
suggestions. 

G.  H.  T. 

MANKATO,  MINN. 


CONTENTS 

PART    I 
The  Value  of  Birds 

A.  THEIR  ESTHETIC  VALUE  AS  A  SUBJECT  FOR  STUDY 

I.  BIRD  TRAVELERS 1 

Discovery  of  America  —  Changes  due  to  migration  — 
Regularity  of  migration  —  Distances  birds  travel  — 
Winter  homes  —  Speed  and  height  —  Routes  of  migra- 
tion—  How  birds  find  their  way  —  Causes  of  migra- 
tion. 

II.  BIRD  Music 13 

Why  birds  sing  —  Season  of  song  —  Time  of  day  of 
song  —  Music  of  songs  —  Methods  of  recording  songs  — 
Similarity  to  human  music  —  Classification  of  songs  — 
Variations  in  songs  —  Call-notes. 

III.  BIRD  HOMES 26 

Time  of  building  —  Location  of  nests  —  Materials  — 
Shape  —  Time  occupied  in  building  —  Nesting-habits 
of  cowbird  —  Number  of  broods  —  Change  in  nesting- 
habits. 

IV.  HOME  LIFE  OF  BIRDS 33 

Eggs  —  Incubation  —  Condition  of  young  when 
hatched  —  Feeding  young  —  Brooding  young  —  A  house 
wren's  day  —  Care  after  leaving  nest  —  Enemies  of 
nestlings. 

V.  COLORS  AND  PLUMAGE  OF  BIRDS 44 

Moulting  —  Change  due  to  wear  —  Changes  in  color 
—  Differences  due  to  sex  —  Protective  coloration. 

VI.  How  TO  KNOW  THE  BIRDS 48 

Attractions  of  bird-study  —  Identification  of  birds — 
Where  to  find  birds  —  When  to  find  birds  —  How  to 
study  birds  —  What  to  study  —  Bird-photography  — 
Table  of  fifty  common  land-birds. 


xii  CONTENTS 

B.  THEIR  ECONOMIC  VALUE 

VII.  FRIENDS  AMONG  THE  BIRDS  AS  DESTROYERS  OF 

INSECT  PESTS 63 

Bureau  of  Biological  Survey  —  Methods  of  determin- 
ing food  of  birds  —  Harm  done  by  insects  —  Nature's 
check  on  insects  —  Service  performed  by  birds  — 
Amount  of  food  eaten  by  birds  —  Value  of  nestling  birds 

—  Control  of  insect  outbreaks  —  Division  of  labor  — 
Birds  of  a  Maryland  farm  —  Birds  and  human  health. 

VIII.  FRIENDS  AMONG  THE  BIRDS   AS  DESTROYERS  OF 

WEED  SEEDS 84 

Harm  done  by  weeds  —  Characteristics  that  make 
weeds  troublesome — Birds  as  destroyers  of  weed  seeds 

—  Amounts  of  weed  seeds  eaten  —  Effect   on  weed- 
patches. 

IX.  BIRDS  AS  DESTROYERS  OF  RODENT  PESTS       .      .    91 

Harm  done  by  rodent  pests  —  Value  of  hawks  and 
owls  —  Study  of  food  of  hawks  and  owls  —  Classifica- 
tion of  hawks  and  owls  —  Money  value  of  hawks  and 
owls. 

X.   FOES   AMONG  THE  BlRDS 99 

Fruit-eaters  —  Injury  to  grain  —  Destruction  of 
poultry  —  Damage  to  trees  and  wood  products  —  De- 
stroying beneficial  insects  —  Injury  to  valuable  birds 

—  Preventing  depredations  of  birds. 

XI.  STRIKING  THE  BALANCE 110 

Harmful  birds  —  Neutral  birds  —  Beneficial  birds 

—  Table  of  food  of  birds. 


PART   II 
Enemies  of  the  Birds 

XII.  CHANGES  IN  THE  NUMBERS  OF  BIRDS       .      .      .116 

Extinct  birds  —  Species  in  danger  of  extermination 
— Decrease  of  game-birds  and  shore-birds — Have  song- 
birds decreased  ? 

XIII.  THE  NATURAL  ENEMIES  OF  BIRDS      ....  128 

Four-footed  enemies  —  Feathered  enemies  —  The 
elements. 


CONTENTS  xiii 

XIV.  BIRD  ENEMIES  INTRODUCED  BY  MAN:  THE  CAT 

AND  THE  ENGLISH  SPARROW 135 

The  Cat. 

Method  of  doing  harm  —  Opinions  of  bird-students 
— Number  of  birds  killed  by  cats  —  Cats  as  disease- 
carriers  —  Remedies. 
The  English  Sparrow. 

Ways  in  which  it  is  harmful — Remedies: — Shoot- 
ing —  Poisoning  —  Trapping. 

XV.  MAN  AS  AN  ENEMY  OP  THE  BIRDS  .      .      .      .161 

Advance  of  civilization  —  Shooting  for  sport  — 
Shooting  for  market  —  The  milliner's  trade  —  Egg- 
collecting  —  Remedies. 


PART   III 

Bird-Protection 
A.  PROTECTIVE  AGENCIES 

XVI.  WORK  OF  THE  AUDUBON  SOCIETIES.      .      .      .  174 
History  of  the  Societies  —  American  Ornithologists' 

Union  —  Work  of  National  Association  of  Audubon 

Societies: 

Legislation  —  Warden  work  —  Egret-protection 
—  Publications  —  Junior  Audubon  classes  — 
Field  agents. 

State  Societies. 

XVII.  BIRD-PROTECTION  BY  GOVERNMENTS— STATE  AND 

NATIONAL 188 

Work  of  State  Governments: 

History  of  legislation  —  Model  law  —  Bird  day— 
Laws  for  game-birds  —  Summary. 
Work  of  National  Government: 

Bureau  of  Biological  Survey — Lacey  Act  — Mi- 
gratory bird  law  — Tariff  regulations  —  Bird  res- 
ervations. 

XVIII.  BIRD  CLUBS .      .  209 

Meriden  Bird  Club  — Brush  Hill  Bird  Club — 
Burroughs  Nature  Club  —  Liberty  Bell  Bird  Club  — 
Private  game  preserves  —  Summary  of  results  in 
bird-protection. 


xiv  CONTENTS 

B.  ATTRACTING  BIRDS 

XIX.  NESTING-BOXES 223 

Reasons  for  attracting  birds  —  Birds  using  boxes  — 
Types  of  houses  —  Imitation  both  inside  and  outside 

—  Imitation  outside  only — No  attempt  at  imitation 

—  Entrance    opening  —  Putting    out    the    house  — 
Martin-houses  —  Open  Houses  —  Nesting-material  — 
Dealers  in  apparatus  to  attract  birds. 

XX.  FEEDING  THE  WINTER  BIRDS 249 

Reasons  for  feeding  birds  —  Birds  to  expect  — 
Kinds  of  food —  Methods  of  putting  out  food — Diffi- 
culties. 

XXI.  FOUNTAINS  AND  SHRUBS  FOR  THE  BIRDS      .      .  260 

Fountains: 

Essentials  —  Location  —  Plans     for    fountains  — 

Fountains  on  lawns  —  Visitors  at  fountains. 
Shrubs: 

Planting  for  shelter  —  Planting  for  nesting-sites 

—  Planting  for  food. 
Calendar  for  attracting  birds. 

XXII.  DOMESTICATION  OF  WILD  BIRDS       ....  271 
Success  achieved  —  Methods  of  rearing  wild  birds 

—  Rearing  the  bob-white  —  Rearing  ducks — Attract- 
ing wild  ducks. 


PART   IV 

Bird-Study  in  Schools 

XXIII.  TEACHING  BIRD-PROTECTION  IN  THE  SCHOOLS    .  279 

Purposes  of  bird-study  —  Materials  for  bird-study 
—  Hand  work  —  Bird  games  —  Bird  calendar  — 
Using  children's  activities  —  Field  trips  —  Bird 
clubs  —  Bird  day  —  Relation  of  bird-study  to  other 
subjects  —  Essentials  of  a  good  lesson  —  A  type  les- 
son —  Outline  of  bird-study  by  grades  and  seasons  — 
Series  of  lessons. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 317 

INDEX    ,  .  321 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

A  BIRD  GARDEN       .      .      .      .  .    .      .  Colored  Frontispiece 

From  a  drawing  by  Amy  M.  Sacker 

BLUEBIRDS,  MALE  AND  FEMALE 4 

From  a  drawing  by  Louis  Agassiz  Fuertes 

ROBIN  SINGING 16 

From  a  drawing  by  Louis  Agassiz  Fuertes 

LONG-BILLED  MARSH  WREN  AT  NEST 26 

INSIDE  OF  HOUSE  WREN'S  NESTING-BOX      ....    26 
YOUNG  GREEN  HERONS  IN  NEST SO 

TWO-STORIED  NEST  OF  YELLOW  WARBLER,  SHOWING  COW- 
BIRD'S  EGG  SEALED  IN  LOWER  STORY 30 

A  WREN  MOTHER  AND  HER  FAMILY      .....    38 

MOTHER  WORKS  WHILE  FATHER  SINGS.    PAIR  OF  HOUSE 
WRENS 38 

BALTIMORE  ORIOLES,  MALE  AND  FEMALE     ....    46 
From  a  drawing  by  Louis  Agassiz  Fuertes 

TOWHEE,  OR  CHEWINK,  MALE  AND  FEMALE  (colored)     .    50 
From  a  drawing  by  Louis  Agassiz  Fuertes 

RED-HEADED  WOODPECKER  (colored] 54 

From  a  drawing  by  Louis  Agassiz  Fuertes 

SPECIMEN  LEAF  FROM  A  BIRD  NOTEBOOK    ....    58 
A  USEFUL  CITIZEN.    HOUSE  WREN 66 

DIAGRAM  OF  FOOD  OF  ADULT  HOUSE  WREN      ...    66 
From  Yearbook  of  Department  of  Agriculture  for  1900 

DOWNY  WOODPECKER  (colored) 74 

From  a  drawing  by  Louis  Agassiz  Fuertes 


xvi  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fox  SPARROWS,  EATERS  OF  WEED  SEEDS    ....    84 
From  a  drawing  by  R.  Bruce  Horsfall 

GOLDFINCH  (colored) 88 

From  a  drawing  by  Louis  Agassiz  Fuertes 

SCREECH  OWL 94 

From  a  drawing  by  R.  Bruce  Horsfall 

ENGLISH  SPARROWS,  MALE  AND  FEMALE      ....  100 
From  a  drawing  by  Louis  Agassiz  Fuertes 

CAT  WITH  ROBIN 136 

From  a  photograph  by  William  Lovell  Finley 

A   CAT   THAT   DOES   NOT   KILL   BlRDS 136 

From  a  photograph  of  a  cat  owned  by  Prof.  Burt  G.  Wilder 

YOUNG  EGRETS  LEFT  FATHERLESS  AND  MOTHERLESS  BY 

PLUME-HUNTERS 168 

From  a  photograph  reproduced  by  permission  of  the  National 
Association  of  Audubon  Societies 

RED  SQUIRREL,  A  NEST-ROBBER 168 

From  a  photograph  by  Dr.  R.  W.  Shufeldt 

BIRD  ISLAND,  FLORIDA.    RESERVATION   OWNED   BY  THE 
NATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  OF  AUDUBON  SOCIETIES    .      .  186 
From  a  photograph  by  C.  E.  Baynard  reproduced  by  permis- 
sion of  the  National  Association 

CALIFORNIA  MURRES  ON  THREE  ARCH  ROCKS  OFF  THE 
OREGON  COAST,  ONE  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT  BIRD  RES- 
ERVATIONS   186 

From  a  photograph  by  William  L.  Finley  and  H.  T.  Bohlman 

JOHN  BURROUGHS  AT  THE  DEDICATION  OF  "WREN'S  NEST" 
IN  ATLANTA,  GA.,  BY  THE  BURROUGHS  NATURE  CLUB  .  214 
From  a  photograph  by  Albert  H.  Pratt 

FIELD  DAY  IN  RENWICK  WOODS,  ITHACA,  N.Y.    MR.  L. 
A.  FUERTES  ADDRESSING  THE  CAYUGA  BIRD  CLUB  .      .  214 
From  a  photograph  by  Arthur  A.  Allen 


ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 

LONGITUDINAL  SECTIONS  OF  WOODPECKER'S  HOLE  AND  OP 

VON  BERLEPSCH  NESTING-BOX 228 

From  Hiesemann's  "How  to  Attract  and  Protect  Wild  Birds" 

NATURAL  NESTING-SITE  OF  A  FLICKER  IN  AN  OLD  APPLE 
TREE 228 

THREE  TYPES  OF  NESTING-BOXES  232 

From  a  photograph  by  J.  R.  Snow 

OPEN  NESTING-BOXES  FOR  ROBIN  AND  PHOSBE         .      .  232 
From  a  photograph  by  J.  R.  Snow 

BLUEBIRD  AT  ENTRANCE  TO  NESTING-BOX   ....  236 
HOUSE  WREN  AND  TOMATO-CAN  HOUSE       ....  236 

TREE  SWALLOW  AT  NESTING-BOX 236 

From  a  photograph  by  W.  H.  Phillips 

MARTIN-HOUSE  ACCOMMODATING  FIVE  THOUSAND  BIRDS    236 
From  a  photograph  by  C.  E.  Hamilton 

SCREECH-OWL  IN  NESTING-BOX 244 

From  a  photograph  by  E.  H.  Forbush 

SONG  SPARROW  AT  LUNCH-COUNTER 250 

DOWNY  WOODPECKER  AT  LUNCH-COUNTER  ....  250 

CHICKADEE  FEEDING  FROM  HAND 250 

HERMIT  THRUSH  AT  LUNCH-COUNTER 250 

A  BIRD'S  TEPEE,  MADE  OF  BEAN-POLES  WITH  THE  VINES 

STILL   ATTACHED 250 

From  a  photograph  by  Frank  M.  Chapman 

A  SELF-SUPPLYING  FEED-BOX 250 

From  a  photograph  by  Edwin  C.  Brown 

SUET-BASKETS 254 

From  a  photograph  by  J.  R.  Snow 

RED-BREASTED  NUTHATCH,  PERCHED  ON  HAND    .      .      .  254 
From  a  photograph  by  Laurence  J.  Webster 


xviii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

WHITE-BREASTED  NUTHATCH,  FEEDING  FROM  HAND        .  254 
Prom  a  photograph  by  Edwin  C.  Brown 

SHELTER  FOR  BIRDS*  FOOD.    FIFTEEN  BIRDS  FEEDING, — 
SONG  SPARROWS,  TREE  SPARROWS,  JUNCOS      .      .      .  258 
From  a  photograph  by  William  C.  Horton 

WINDOW  AND  MOVING  FOOD-SHELVES 258 

BOB- WHITE  REARED  IN  CAPTIVITY 262 

Reproduced  by  permission  of  the  National  Association  of 
Audubon  Societies 

CONCRETE  BIRD  FOUNTAIN  ON  THE  AUTHOR'S  LAWN  .      .  262 

SCHOOL  BIRD  CALENDAR 284 

From  a  photograph  by  A.  D.  Whedon 

FEEDING-STATION   FOR   BIRDS   IN   YARD   OF   TRAINING- 
SCHOOL,  MANKATO  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL,  MINNESOTA  284 

SCHOOL  BIRD  FOUNTAIN,  PASSAIC,  N.J 292 

JUNIOR  AUDUBON  CLASS  AT  TRAINING-SCHOOL,  MANKATO, 

MINN 292 

From  a  photograph  by  A.  D.  Whedon 


The  illustrations,  except  as  otherwise  stated,  are  from  photographs  by 
the  author. 


BIRD  FRIENDS 


BIRD  FRIENDS 

CHAPTER  I 

BIRD    TRAVELERS 

Discovery  of  America.  The  subject  of  bird  mi- 
gration is  of  special  interest  to  Americans,  because 
it  is  probable  that  migrating  birds  aided  Columbus 
in  the  discovery  of  America.  During  the  latter  part 
of  his  voyage,  when  his  sailors  were  beginning  to 
mutiny,  he  fell  in  with  flocks  of  birds  which  were 
making  their  annual  flight  from  the  Bermudas  to 
the  Bahamas.  Columbus  followed  these  birds  and 
was  thus  guided  to  land.  Otherwise  it  is  quite  pos- 
sible that  he  could  not  have  induced  his  sailors  to 
continue  farther,  and  thus  the  discovery  of  America 
would  have  been  postponed. 

Recent  records  of  migration.  During  recent 
years,  there  has  been  kept  at  Washington  a  very 
complete  record  of  the  facts  of  migration,  relating 
to  the  times  and  routes  of  migration  and  to  the 
winter  homes  of  birds.  For  more  than  twenty  years 
these  records  have  been  collected  by  the  Bureau  of 
Biological  Survey,  through  the  cooperation  of  over 
two  thousand  bird  students  throughout  North 
America,  so  that  now  they  have  a  large  array  of 


2  BIRD  FRIENDS 

reliable  data  regarding  bird  migration,  comprising 
over  a  half -million  records. 

Changes  due  to  migration.  The  conspicuous  sea- 
sonal changes  in  bird  life  which  occur  regularly 
every  year  are  due  to  bird  migration.  Birds  may 
be  divided  into  four  groups  in  accordance  with  the 
portion  of  the  year  that  they  remain  in  a  given 
locality.  Permanent  residents  remain  in  a  locality 
all  the  year.  In  the  cold  Northern  States  these  in- 
clude such  common  birds  as  the  blue  jay,  nuthatch, 
chickadee,  downy  woodpecker,  goldfinch,  and  a  few 
others.  Farther  south  the  list  becomes  longer. 

Summer  residents  remain  for  the  summer  only, 
during  which  season  they  are  nesting.  They  spend 
the  winter  in  regions  farther  south.  Most  of  the  com- 
mon birds  found  during  the  summer  in  the  north- 
eastern section  of  the  United  States  belong  to  this 
group,  such  as  the  oriole  and  the  house  wren. 

Winter  residents  are  found  in  a  locality  only 
during  the  winter,  the  summer  being  spent  in  re- 
gions farther  north.  In  the  Northern  States,  this 
group  includes  such  birds  as  the  winter  wren,  snow 
bunting,  tree  sparrow,  redpoll,  and  red-breasted 
nuthatch. 

Transient  visitants  are  birds  which  are  seen  for 
a  few  weeks  in  the  spring  and  again  for  a  few  weeks 
in  the  fall  as  they  are  migrating.  These  birds  spend 
the  winter  farther  south  and  the  summer  farther 
north,  and  are  seen  only  when  passing  through,  on 


BIRD  TRAVELERS  5 

their  way  to  and  from  their  breeding-grounds.  Many 
warblers  belong  to  this  group.  The  birds  which  be- 
long in  each  of  these  four  groups  vary  according  to 
the  locality. 

The  general  changes  in  bird  life  due  to  migration 
which  occur  annually  in  any  locality  may  be  briefly 
summarized  as  follows:  During  the  winter  months 
the  birds  found  in  a  locality  belong  to  the  perma- 
nent residents  and  winter  residents.  For  several 
months  there  is  little  change  in  the  kinds  of  birds 
seen.  But  beginning  with  the  early  spring  the  migra- 
tion commences,  the  exact  date  varying  with  the  lat- 
itude and  the  weather.  New  birds  continue  to  come 
in  large  numbers  up  to  the  middle  or  last  of  May, 
some  remaining  for  the  summer  and  others  passing 
farther  north.  Meanwhile  the  winter  residents  have 
been  leaving.  Then  follows  the  breeding-season, 
and  for  several  months  there  is  little  change  in  the 
kinds  of  birds  seen.  About  the  first  of  September 
the  fall  migration  begins,  extending  into  Novem- 
ber, the  birds  gradually  leaving  for  the  South, 
slipping  away  so  quietly  that  they  may  be  gone  for 
some  time  before  their  absence  is  noted.  In  the 
late  fall  the  winter  residents  arrive,  and  bird  life 
settles  down  again  to  the  winter  quiet.  Thus  this 
annual  change  occurs  year  after  year  with  great 
regularity. 

Regularity  of  migration.  The  time  at  which  each 
species  of  bird  arrives  at  a  certain  place  varies  little 


4  BIRD  FRIENDS 

from  year  to  year  for  most  birds.  The  date  when  the 
early  migrants  arrive  may  vary  considerably  ac- 
cording to  the  season,  but  the  dates  for  the  later 
migrants  are  fairly  constant. 

The  order  in  which  the  various  birds  arrive  is  also 
well  fixed.  Certain  birds  are  always  among  the  first 
migrants  regardless  of  the  season,  such  as  the  robin 
and  the  bluebird,  and  other  birds  are  always  among 
the  last  migrants  to  arrive,  such  as  the  indigo  bunt- 
ing and  wood  pewee,  and  this  order  remains  about 
the  same  from  year  to  year. 

Distances.  The  distances  that  birds  migrate 
vary  greatly  with  the  species.  Some  birds  may  mi- 
grate southward  only  a  few  miles;  others  travel 
farther,  to  the  Southern  States;  and  over  a  hundred 
species  leave  the  United  States.  Some  winter  in 
Central  America,  some  in  the  northern  part  of 
South  America,  and  still  others  in  the  southern 
part  of  South  America.  Some  warblers  which  nest 
in  Alaska  probably  travel  to  Brazil,  a  distance  of 
seven  thousand  miles. 

Golden  plover.  The  two  most  noted  travelers 
among  birds  are  the  golden  plover  and  the  Arctic 
tern.  The  golden  plover  nests  along  the  Arctic 
coast  of  North  America.  It  then  proceeds  to  Lab- 
rador and  Nova  Scotia,  and  from  here  it  may  make 
a  continuous  flight,  in  pleasant  weather,  of  twenty- 
four  hundred  miles,  to  the  coast  of  South  America. 
It  then  passes  on  to  Argentina,  where  it  spends  the 


BLUEBIRD 

Upper,  male  ;  lower,  female 


BIRD  TRAVELERS  5 

winter.  It  returns  north  by  a  different  route,  pass- 
ing along  the  western  part  of  South  America  and 
through  the  United  States  by  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley, and  thence  to  the  northern  coast  of  North 
America,  its  nesting-site,  a  distance  of  eight  thou- 
sand miles  from  its  winter  home. 

Arctic  tern.  The  Arctic  tern  has  even  a  longer 
range  of  travel  than  the  golden  plover.  Some  of 
these  birds  breed  along  the  Arctic  coast  of  North 
America,  a  nest  having  been  found  within  seven 
and  a  half  degrees  of  the  North  Pole.  Its  winter 
home  is  eleven  thousand  miles  away,  within  the 
Antarctic  Circle,  within  sixteen  degrees  of  the 
South  Pole.  Thus  the  bird  flies  almost  from  pole  to 
pole,  twice  a  year,  a  journey  of  twenty-two  thou- 
sand miles,  a  distance  nearly  equal  to  the  earth's 
circumference.  Mr.  W.  W.  Cooke  points  out  that, 
as  a  result  of  being  near  the  poles  for  so  much  of  the 
year,  it  lives  for  about  eight  months  in  regions  of 
perpetual  sunshine,  and  during  the  rest  of  the  year 
its  days  are  much  longer  than  its  nights.  It  might 
well  be  called  the  bird  of  sunshine. 

Winter  homes.  As  one  watches  the  birds  in  their 
flight,  it  is  interesting  to  think  of  the  countries  from 
which  they  have  come,  and  of  the  varied  scenery 
which  their  keen  eyes  have  looked  upon.  The  hum- 
mingbird that  visits  our  garden  flowers  has  seen 
the  Panama  Canal;  the  Baltimore  oriole  that  swings 
its  nest  from  our  elm  trees  has  seen  the  Andes  in 


6  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Colombia;  the  rose-breasted  grosbeak  spends  his 
winter  just  over  the  equator  in  Ecuador;  the  king- 
bird has  perhaps  flown  above  the  waters  of  Lake 
Titicaca  in  Bolivia  and  Peru;  the  bobolink  has 
traveled  from  Paraguay  to  build  his  nest  in  our 
meadows;  the  red-eyed  vireo  has  visited  the  coffee 
plantations  of  southwestern  Brazil;  the  barn  swal- 
low that  builds  his  mud  nest  in  our  barns  will 
return  to  the  Pampas  in  Argentina  for  his  winter 
sojourn;  while  some  of  the  nighthawks  that  nest  in 
Alaska  may  travel  to  the  southern  part  of  South 
America,  to  Patagonia,  a  distance  of  about  seven 
thousand  miles  and  of  about  one  hundred  and  fif- 
teen degrees  of  latitude. 

Speed.  The  speed  with  which  birds  migrate 
varies  with  different  species  of  birds  and  with  the 
same  species  of  bird  in  different  parts  of  its  journey. 
In  general,  birds  travel  faster  during  the  latter  part 
of  their  journey  than  during  the  first  part.  During 
the  first  part  of  March,  the  robin  averages  thirteen 
miles  a  day  in  migrating  from  southern  Iowa  to 
central  Minnesota.  From  here  its  speed  keeps  in- 
creasing till  it  is  traveling  at  the  rate  of  seventy 
miles  a  day  when  it  reaches  Alaska  by  the  middle 
of  May.  The  robins  along  the  Atlantic  Coast  travel 
more  slowly,  at  the  rate  of  seventeen  miles  a  day. 

The  average  speed  for  all  species  of  birds  is 
twenty-three  miles  per  day  from  New  Orleans  to 
southern  Minnesota.  From  this  locality  some  spe- 


BIRD  TRAVELERS  7 

cies  travel  northward  at  the  rate  of  forty  miles  a 
day,  and  still  farther  north  some  at  seventy-two 
miles,  others  at  one  hundred  and  sixteen  miles,  and 
five  species,  on  arriving  in  Alaska,  are  traveling  at 
the  rate  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  a  day. 

The  figures  here  given  are  for  the  species  as  a 
whole,  not  for  individual  birds.  Usually  birds  mi- 
grate only  a  few  hours  during  the  night  and  then 
rest  for  a  day  or  two,  so  that  the  average  rate  at 
which  a  species  migrates  is  much  less  than  for  an 
individual  bird.  Our  common  small  birds  prob- 
ably travel  at  the  rate  of  about  thirty  miles  an  hour 
while  migrating;  ducks  and  geese  may  travel  at  the 
rate  of  forty-five  miles  an  hour.  Thus  during  a 
single  night  birds  may  travel  from  two  hundred  to 
four  hundred  miles. 

Daily  time  of  migration.  Some  birds  migrate  by 
day,  some  by  night,  and  some  both  by  day  and 
night,  but  most  are  night  travelers.  The  time  se- 
lected by  a  bird  for  migration  depends  on  its  power 
of  flight,  its  method  of  procuring  food,  and  its  dis- 
position. The  warblers,  vireos,  and  thrushes  mi- 
grate by  night,  the  swallows  and  hawks  by  day; 
while  ducks,  shore-birds,  and  sea-birds  migrate  both 
by  day  and  night. 

Routes.  As  birds  travel  between  then*  winter  and 
summer  homes,  it  is  found  that  they  follow  fairly 
well-defined  routes.  In  the  central  United  States 
the  Mississippi  Valley  is  the  most  common  route, 


8  BIRD  FRIENDS 

and  in  the  eastern  United  States,  the  coast-line. 
The  route  by  which  a  bird  travels  north  is  usually 
the  same  as  the  one  by  which  it  returns  south,  al- 
though there  are  some  exceptions  to  this  rule. 

When  birds  which  are  en  route  for  South  Amer- 
ica reach  the  Gulf  Coast  of  the  Southern  States, 
several  routes  are  possible.  A  few  birds  pass  from 
Florida  and  follow  the  chain  of  islands  extending 
southeast — the  Bahamas,  Haiti,  Porto  Rico,  and 
the  Lesser  Antilles  —  and  thence  to  South  America. 
A  few  fly  from  southern  Florida  to  Cuba,  thence 
to  Jamaica,  and  then  make  the  flight  of  five  hun- 
dred miles  from  Jamaica  to  South  America:  the 
bobolink  takes  this  route.  A  few  birds,  like  the  cliff 
swallows,  follow  along  the  coast  of  Mexico;  but  the 
great  majority  of  species  fly  directly  from  the  Gulf 
Coast  of  the  Southern  States  across  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  to  the  southern  shore  of  the  Gulf,  a  distance 
of  from  five  hundred  to  seven  hundred  miles.  From 
there  the  journey  is  continued  through  Central 
America  to  South  America. 

Another  route  much  used  by  water-birds  extends 
from  Nova  Scotia  to  the  Lesser  Antilles  and  the 
northern  coast  of  South  America.  It  was  the  birds 
which  were  migrating  along  a  portion  of  this  route 
that  guided  Columbus  to  land. 

How  birds  find  their  way.  One  of  the  puzzling 
problems  of  migration  is  how  birds  find  their  way 
during  these  long  journeys.  On  June  7,  1911,  a 


BIRD  TRAVELERS  9 

chimney  swift  fell  through  an  opening  in  a  chimney 
into  a  room  of  a  house  located  in  Meriden,  New 
Hampshire.  Mr.  E.  H.  Baynes  was  in  the  room  and 
placed  on  the  bird  a  small  numbered  leg-band  and 
let  the  bird  go.  About  one  year  later,  on  June  15, 
1912,  a  chimney  swift  again  fell  through  the  same 
hole  into  the  same  room,  and  when  Mr.  Baynes  took 
up  the  bird  he  found  it  to  be  the  same  one  he  had 
banded  the  year  before.  This  bird  had  traveled  to 
Central  America,  spent  the  winter  there,  and  then 
traveled  back  to  the  same  town,  and  to  exactly  the 
same  chimney  it  had  occupied  the  previous  year. 
How  had  it  been  able  to  find  its  way  over  this  long 
route  back  to  the  same  nesting-site? 

Bird's  sight.  Many  theories  have  been  advanced 
to  explain  how  birds  find  their  way.  Probably  no  one 
theory  will  satisfy  all  conditions.  There  are  doubt- 
less many  factors  needed  to  give  a  satisfactory  ex- 
planation. One  important  factor  is  the  bird's  sight. 
Birds  have  very  keen  eyesight,  and  it  seems  probable 
that  birds  flying  at  a  great  height  may  be  guided  by 
conspicuous  landmarks,  such  as  mountain-chains, 
coast-lines,  and  river-valleys  which  extend  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  routes  of  migration.  In  North 
America,  the  coast-lines  and  mountain-chains  and 
the  Mississippi  Valley  extend  in  the  general  direction 
in  which  most  of  the  birds  migrate.  But  this  expla- 
nation alone  is  not  sufficient,  as  birds  may  migrate  at 
right  angles  to  these  landmarks,  and  may  find  their 


10  BIRD  FRIENDS 

way  in  a  fog  when  landmarks  are  invisible,  or  over 
large  bodies  of  water  where  no  landmarks  can  be 
seen;  and  frequently  birds  fly  so  close  to  the  ground 
or  water  that  they  cannot  see  any  landmarks.  And 
again  birds  may  travel  straight  for  long  distances 
over  routes  which  they  have  never  seen  before. 

Sense  of  direction.  Still  another  suggestion  is 
that  birds  have  a  sense  of  direction  which  enables 
them  to  find  their  way.  This  is  simply  ascribing  a 
power  to  birds  without  any  real  explanation,  but 
experiments  which  have  been  made  with  birds  seem 
to  show  quite  conclusively  that  some  birds  do  pos- 
sess this  sense  of  direction.  Several  birds  were  cap- 
tured on  Bird  Key  south  of  Florida,  and  were  placed 
in  the  hold  of  a  steamship  and  taken  north  to  Cape 
Hatteras,  a  distance  of  about  one  thousand  miles 
from  their  nesting-sites,  and  released.  Five  days 
later,  two  of  them  were  back  on  their  nests.  In  this 
case  no  other  explanation  seems  possible  than  that 
the  birds  found  their  way  through  a  sense  of  direc- 
tion, as  the  birds  had  never  flown  over  this  route 
before,  and  could  not  see  the  way  over  which  they 
had  come,  and  so  could  not  make  use  of  any  land- 
marks. 

Causes  of  migration.  The  most  puzzling  of  all 
questions  concerning  migration  is,  why  do  birds 
migrate?  At  the  outset  it  may  be  stated  that  bird 
students  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  causes  of  migra- 
tion, but  brief  reference  may  be  made  to  a  few  of  the 


BIRD  TRAVELERS  11 

theories  which  have  been  put  forward  at  various 
times  to  explain  the  cause  of  bird  migration. 

Food  and  temperature.  It  is  very  commonly 
stated  that  lack  of  food  and  low  temperatures  cause 
birds  to  migrate.  But  even  a  very  hasty  examination 
of  the  facts  shows  that  these  do  not  explain  migra- 
tion. The  fall  migration  begins  during  the  late  sum- 
mer, when  the  temperature  is  still  high,  and  at  a 
time  when  insect  life  is  abundant.  Furthermore, 
during  the  spring  migration,  birds  are  traveling  into 
regions  where  the  temperature  is  lower  and  insect 
life  is  less  abundant  than  in  the  regions  which  they 
are  leaving.  And  again,  some  tropical  sea-birds  mi- 
grate from  one  section  to  another  where  the  condi- 
tions of  temperature  and  food-supply  are  practically 
the  same. 

Glacial  theory.  One  theory  relates  the  origin  of 
bird  migration  closely  with  the  glacial  age.  Fossils 
which  have  been  found  show  that  before  this  age 
North  America  had  a  warm  climate,  even  in  its 
northern  portions.  This  climate  must  have  been 
well  adapted  for  bird  life  during  all  parts  of  the  year. 
As  the  ice-sheet  began  to  extend  south,  the  birds  were 
driven  before  it,  and  as  it  melted  and  receded  north, 
the  birds  followed  it  back.  In  accordance  with  this 
theory,  the  habit  which  the  birds  thus  acquired  of 
moving  back  and  forth,  following  the  oscillations 
of  the  ice-sheet,  was  inherited  eventually  by  the  birds 
as  an  instinct  and  still  exists  to  this  day. 


12  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Physiological  explanation.  None  of  these  theories 
is  generally  accepted  by  bird  students  as  giving  a 
satisfactory  explanation  of  migration.  It  is  probable 
that  birds  have  a  physiological  instinct  which  prompts 
them  to  migrate  in  order  to  rear  their  young,  just  as 
their  instinct  leads  to  other  actions,  such  as  singing, 
mating,  nest-building,  egg-laying,  and  incubating. 
But  this  statement,  of  course,  gives  no  explanation 
as  to  how  and  why  this  instinct  originated. 


CHAPTER  II 

BIRD   MUSIC 

Why  birds  sing.  Of  the  many  interesting  sounds 
in  nature,  bird  songs  are  the  most  charming.  The 
song  of  birds  is  a  sexual  characteristic  developed  in 
the  male  during  the  nesting-season.  It  is  closely  re- 
lated in  the  first  place  with  mating,  and  is  one  means 
by  which  the  male  attracts  the  attention  of  the  fe- 
male during  courtship;  it  continues,  however,  dur- 
ing most  of  the  nesting-season.  Occasionally  the 
female  has  been  known  to  sing,  as  with  the  rose- 
breasted  grosbeak  and  cardinal.  While  singing  is 
primarily  a  sexual  instinct  with  the  birds,  yet  it  may 
probably  be  carried  on  for  the  aesthetic  pleasure 
derived,  as  some  birds  seem  to  show  appreciation 
of  the  harmony  of  music. 

Season  when  birds  sing.  Spring  and  early  summer 
is  the  season  of  bird  song,  but  there  is  a  great  varia- 
tion as  regards  the  time  when  different  species  begin 
and  end  their  song.  The  first  birds  that  come  in  the 
spring  begin  to  sing  at  once,  so  that  the  song  sea- 
son in  the  northern  United  States  begins  in  March. 
The  song  of  the  later  arrivals  is  added  to  these,  till 
the  height  of  the  song  season  is  reached  in  May.  As 
the  family  cares  begin  to  occupy  the  attention  of  the 


14  BIRD  FRIENDS 

birds,  they  become  more  wary  and  busy,  so  that 
during  June  the  volume  of  bird  music  gradually 
becomes  less  as  the  birds  drop  out  of  the  chorus  one 
by  one.  During  July  there  is  a  still  more  marked 
decrease,  till  by  the  end  of  the  month  nearly  all  the 
birds  have  ceased  singing,  although  a  few  continue 
well  through  the  summer,  such  as  the  house  wren 
and  red-eyed  vireo.  When  birds  rear  two  broods, 
this  tends  to  prolong  the  song  season. 

Time  of  day  when  birds  sing.  The  bird  chorus 
begins  in  the  early  morning  at  earliest  daybreak  and 
reaches  its  climax  about  sunrise  and  then  declines 
till  it  is  nearly  over  by  the  middle  of  the  forenoon, 
although  a  few  birds,  like  the  wren,  sing  nearly  all 
day  long.  During  the  middle  of  the  day  most  of 
the  birds  are  quiet.  The  chorus  begins  again  late  in 
the  afternoon  and  continues  till  some  time  after  sun- 
set. The  evening  chorus  is  not  so  vigorous  and  long- 
continued  as  the  morning  chorus,  although  some 
species  of  birds  sing  rather  more  in  the  afternoon 
than  in  the  morning. 

The  birds  do  not  all  begin  and  end  their  morning 
song  at  the  same  time.  Certain  birds  are  usually 
among  the  first  to  begin,  an  hour  or  more  before 
sunrise,  such  as  the  chipping  sparrow,  the  robin, 
and  the  song  sparrow,  and  as  the  morning  advances 
other  birds  join  the  chorus.  This  order  in  which  the 
different  birds  begin  to  sing  is  about  the  same  from 
morning  to  morning. 


BIRD  MUSIC  15 

Identification  by  song.  Bird  songs  are  of  interest  to 
mankind  for  two  reasons:  as  a  means  of  identifying 
the  singer  and  as  a  source  of  pleasure  on  account  of 
the  musical  harmonies  produced,  just  as  one  enjoys 
human  music.  When  the  leaves  on  the  trees  have 
developed  in  the  late  springtime,  it  is  often  difficult  to 
see  the  birds  which  may  be  behind  the  foliage.  But 
if  one  knows  the  song  of  the  bird,  he  can  identify  it 
without  seeing  it.  It  is  a  source  of  much  pleasure  to 
be  able  to  recognize  the  voices  of  one's  bird  friends 
as  he  walks  past  their  haunts. 

Music  of  bird  songs.  But  the  feature  about  bird 
songs  that  appeals  most  strongly  to  one  is  their  har- 
mony, that  reaches  the  musical  sense  which  every  one 
possesses  in  some  degree.  As  one  may  plan  to  attend 
a  concert  to  hear  some  of  the  fine  musical  produc- 
tions of  the  human  voice,  so  one  may  plan  to  attend 
the  morning  or  evening  chorus  of  the  birds  to  hear 
some  of  the  fine  musical  productions  of  the  bird's 
voice.  Each  kind  of  music  has  its  accompaniment. 
The  human  voice  is  usually  accompanied  by  some 
instrument,  which  adds  to  the  charm  of  the  voice. 
The  accompaniment  of  bird  music  is  the  natural  sur- 
roundings in  which  it  is  rendered,  the  things  that  we 
associate  with  it.  A  beautiful  sunset  may  be  the 
accompaniment  of  the  song  of  the  vesper  sparrow, 
a  quiet  wood  on  a  hill-slope  that  of  the  hermit 
thrush,  and  a  little  tree-bordered  brook  that  of  the 
kinglet.  These  natural  accompaniments  are  closely 


16  BIRD  FRIENDS 

interwoven  with  the  songs  and  add  greatly  to  our 
enjoyment  of  them. 

Methods  of  recording  bird  music.  Several  plans 
have  been  used  for  describing  and  recording  bird 
songs.  People  differ  so  much  in  their  way  of  inter- 
preting bird  songs  that  no  one  method  of  description 
will  be  clear  to  all. 

One  of  the  simplest  methods  of  recording  bird 
songs  is  to  use  syllables  sounding  like  the  song  of  the 
bird.  In  some  cases  this  works  very  well,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  chickadee  and  some  other  birds  which 
have  been  named  from  their  song.  In  other  cases 
the  attempts  to  describe  the  song  by  syllables  are  not 
so  successful,  as  different  syllables  may  be  used  by 
different  people.  Following  are  some  examples  of 
attempts  that  have  been  made  to  describe  songs  this 
way:  — 

Red-winged  blackbird:  kong-quer-ree,OTO-ka-lee,oigug- 
lug-eee.  These  all  agree  in  having  three  syllables  and  in 
having  the  last  syllable  end  in  e. 

Maryland  yellow-throat:  wichity,  wichity. 

Flicker:  wick,  wick,  wick. 

Nuthatch:  quank,  quank,  quank. 

Oven-bird:  teacher,  teacher,  teacher. 

Another  way  of  recording  songs  is  to  use  a  series 
of  dots  or  dashes  to  indicate  the  number  of  syl- 
lables and  the  difference  in  pitch.   The  song  of  the 
chestnut-sided  warbler  might  be  represented  thus: 
.  This  means  that  the  song  has 


ROBIN    SINGING 


BIRD  MUSIC 


17 


six  syllables  and  that  they  are  all  on  the  same  pitch 
except  the  next  to  the  last,  which  is  higher  than  the 
others.  The  song  of  the  robin  may  be  represented 

thus: This 

indicates  that  the  notes  are  generally  delivered  in 
groups  of  three,  with  an  occasional  two-note  group. 
Still  another  method  of  recording  bird  songs  is 
the  attempt  to  write  them  on  the  musical  scale  used 
for  human  music.  Following  is  a  record  of  the  rob- 
in's song  in  musical  notation,  as  given  by  Mr. 
Schuyler  Mathews  in  his  "  Field  Book  of  Wild 
Birds  and  Their  Music  " :  — 


ROBIN 


In  order  that  the  three  methods  of  recording  bird 
songs  may  be  compared,  the  song  of  the  white- 
throated  sparrow  is  given  in  each  of  these  methods. 

By  syllables:  Old  Sam  Peabody,  Peabody,  Peabody. 

By  dots: 

By  musical  staff:  — 


J=76.  Moderate. 


WHITE-THROATED  SPARROW 

(The  bird  sings  two  octaves  higher) 


18  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Described  in  words,  this  last  means  that  first 
come  two  long  tones  of  equal  length,  then  three 
groups  of  triplets,  each  group  being  equal  in  length 
to  one  of  the  long  notes;  and  in  each  triplet  the 
middle  note  is  the  shortest,  the  first  note  being  equal 
to  three  of  these  and  the  last  note  equal  to  two  of 
them. 

Similarity  of  bird  music  to  human  music.  There 
is  something  of  interest  in  the  song  itself  as  a  musical 
production  divested  of  its  harmony  and  surroundings. 
Mr.  Henry  Oldys,  who  has  made  a  special  study  of 
bird  songs  for  a  number  of  years,  finds  some  interest- 
ing similarities  between  bird  music  and  human  mu- 
sic. First,  the  resemblances  in  form  of  structure 
are  so  close  that  it  is  possible  to  record  many  bird 
songs  on  the  same  musical  scales  that  are  used  for 
human  music. 

Mr.  Oldys  writes:  — 

One  especially  remarkable  point  of  resemblance  be- 
tween bird  and  human  music,  however,  cannot  be  too 
strongly  emphasized.  I  have  found  the  wood  pewee  and 
the  wood  thrush  uttering  songs,  in  some  cases  identical, 
in  others  nearly  so,  in  structural  form  with  many  of  our 
four-time  ballads  and  hymns.  This  form  is  governed  by 
the  following  unwritten  rule :  the  first  and  third  lines  are 
identical;  the  second  and  fourth  are  identical  in  notes  or 
character,  except  that  the  second  ends  with  a  note  that 
leaves  the  musical  sense  suspended,  and  the  fourth  with 
one  that  satisfies  it,  the  keynote.  The  wood  pewee  song 
follows  this  form  strictly. 


BIRD  MUSIC  19 

Mr.  Oldys  gives  the  following  song  of  the  wood 
thrush  as  illustrating  this  rule  of  the  human  ballad : — 


J=144. 


f- 

4 


B 


WOOD  THRUSH  ; 

A  second  similarity  between  bird  and  human  music 
is  found  in  the  fact  that  these  two  kinds  of  music 
have  been  developing  along  similar  lines.  Bird 
music  to-day  is  very  similar  to  human  music  in  its 
earliest  stages,  and  similar  to  the  music  of  some  prim- 
itive people  to-day,  and  may  even  be  superior  to  it.  ] 

Bird  duets.  A  third  similarity  is  shown  in  the 
fact  that  birds  possess  a  musical  taste  and  show  ap- 
preciation of  musical  tones.  Mr.  Oldys  cites  cases 
where  birds  sing  duets,  one  immediately  following 
the  other,  where  the  second  bird  sings  a  theme  which 
naturally  follows  and  completes  the  theme  of  the 
first  bird.  The  birds  have  been  known  to  repeat 
these  several  times,  each  waiting  till  the  other  fin- 
ishes. In  some  cases  where  two  birds  were  singing 
unrelated  themes,  one  bird  has  been  known  to 
change  its  theme  so  as  to  make  it  harmonize  with  the 
other's  notes.  This  antiphonal  form  of  singing  has 


BIRD  FRIENDS 


been  observed  especially  among  meadowlarks,  but 
also  among  chickadees,  chewinks,  song  sparrows, 
and  field  sparrows.  These  duets  are  usually  sung 
between  birds  of  the  same  species,  but  occasionally 
are  heard  between  birds  of  different  species.  The 
following  records  of  duets  are  given  by  Mr.  Oldys:  — 


=m. 


DUET  OP  TWO  Fnnj>  SPARROWS 


i 


Chewink 


Bewick's  Wren 
DUET  OF  CHEWINK  AND  BEWICK'S  WREN 

Bird  trios.  Mr.  Oldys  also  records  a  very  unusual 
case  of  three  meadowlarks  singing  a  trio.  Two  larks 
were  first  singing  unrelated  phrases.  One  bird  then 
changed  its  song  to  make  it  respond  to  that  of  the 
other,  and  after  this  was  repeated  several  times,  a 
third  meadowlark  cut  in  with  a  phrase  related  to 


BIRD  MUSIC  21 

the  other  two  and  appropriately  placed,  and  the 
three  birds  sang  twice  around  this  trio. 

3RD  BIRD  2ND  BIRD  Isr  BIRD 


TRIO  OF  MEADOWLARKS 

All  these  cases  seem  to  show  conclusively  that 
birds  do  possess  musical  appreciation. 

Classification  of  bird  songs.  It  is  extremely  diffi- 
cult to  make  a  classification  of  bird  songs  that  will 
appeal  to  all  people  in  the  same  way,  but  the 
following  crude  grouping  is  suggested  as  hinting  at 
some  of  the  more  conspicuous  differences  in  bird 
songs:  — 

Instrumentalists.  The  first  group  might  be  called 
"instrumentalists,"  as  they  do  not  make  the  sound 
with  the  throat,  but  with  the  bill,  wings,  or  an  air- 
sac.  In  its  general  purpose,  however,  the  sound 
made  corresponds  with  the  songs  of  the  song-birds. 
The  woodpeckers,  the  ruffed  grouse,  and  the  prairie 
chicken  belong  to  this  group.  The  woodpeckers  pro- 
duce their  note  by  beating  on  a  limb  with  their  bills. 
The  grouse  produces  its  sound  by  beating  the  air 
with  its  wings.  The  prairie  chicken  produces  his 
booming  sound  by  means  of  air-sacs  situated  on  the 
sides  of  the  head. 

Syllable  songs.  A  second  group  of  songs  may  in- 
clude those  which  possess  enough  similarity  to 


22  BIRD  FRIENDS 

spoken  syllables  so  that  the  bird  has  been  named 
from  its  song.  In  this  group  belong  such  birds  as  the 
chickadee,  bob-white,  wood  pewee,  chebec,  phoebe, 
and  whip-poor-will.  The  songs  of  these  birds  are 
not  very  musical,  but  some  are  rather  pleasing,  as 
that  of  the  chickadee.  No  sharp  line  can  be  drawn 
between  these  songs  and  the  whistle  songs  men- 
tioned in  the  next  paragraph,  as  some  of  these  sylla- 
ble songs  possess  the  character  of  a  whistle. 

Whistle  songs.  In  a  third  group  may  be  placed 
most  of  the  remainder  of  the  song-birds  which  have 
a  more  or  less  complex  song  of  a  whistled  character, 
many  of  which  are  very  musical  and  pleasing. 

Some  songs  are  monotonous,  like  that  of  the  chip- 
ping sparrow;  others  are  varied,  like  that  of  the  song 
sparrow.  Some  are  ringing  and  loud,  like  that  of  the 
Baltimore  oriole;  others  are  soft  and  subdued,  like 
that  of  the  vesper  sparrow.  Some  are  unmusical, 
like  that  of  the  phoebe;  others  are  musical,  like  that 
of  the  wood  thrush. 

Among  the  birds  which  deserve  special  mention, 
either  on  account  of  the  variety  or  the  pleasing  qual- 
ity of  then*  notes,  are  the  house  wren,  the  Baltimore 
oriole,  the  rose-breasted  grosbeak,  the  catbird,  the 
brown  thrasher,  the  goldfinch,  the  song  sparrow,  the 
vesper  sparrow,  the  wood  thrush,  the  veery,  and  the 
hermit  thrush. 

The  wren's  song  consists  of  a  warble  without 
much  variety,  but  very  cheerful,  and  given  almost 


BIRD  MUSIC  23 

continuously  during  the  day.  The  grosbeak  has  a 
pleasing  warble  reminding  one  of  the  robin.  The 
brown  thrasher's  notes  suggest  an  orchestra.  The 
goldfinch  has  been  well  named  the  "wild  canary." 
The  song  of  the  vesper  sparrow  has  a  subdued,  rest- 
ful character,  frequently  heard  in  the  late  afternoon. 
Probably  the  first  place  among  the  bird  musicians 
should  be  given  to  one  of  the  thrushes.  There  is  a 
resonant,  ringing,  penetrating  character  about  their 
notes  that  it  is  impossible  to  describe. 

Mr.  Wilson  Flagg  writes  in  his  "A  Year  with  the 
Birds":  — 

The  singing  birds  with  reference  to  their  songs  are  dis- 
tinguishable into  four  classes:  The  rapid  singers,  whose 
song  is  uninterrupted,  of  considerable  length,  and  deliv- 
ered in  apparent  ecstasy,  like  the  bobolink;  the  moderate 
singers,  whose  notes  are  slowly  modulated,  without 
pauses  or  rests  between  the  different  strains,  like  the 
robin  and  veery;  the  interrupted  singers,  who  sometimes 
modulate  their  notes  with  rapidity,  but  make  a  distinct 
pause  after  each  strain,  like  the  red  thrush  and  hermit 
thrush.  The  fourth  class  includes  birds  whose  lay  con- 
sists only  of  two  or  three  notes,  not  sufficient  to  be  called 
a  song,  like  the  bluebird  and  golden  robin. 

Variations  in  songs.  A  study  of  bird  songs  soon 
shows  that  while  the  songs  of  different  birds  of  a 
given  species  are  much  alike  in  the  rhythm,  there 
is  a  great  variation  in  different  individuals  in  the 
notes  used  and  in  the  excellence  of  rendering,  so 
that  the  ear  trained  to  bird  music  soon  distinguishes 


24  BIRD  FRIENDS 

different  robins  and  different  orioles  through  their 
songs. 

There  may  also  be  a  variation  in  the  song  of  any 
one  individual,  dependent  on  age  and  season.  The 
first  efforts  of  the  young  bird  to  sing  are  not  so  near 
the  type  of  that  species  as  those  which  he  makes  in 
later  seasons.  Again  the  song  of  the  individual  may 
change  as  the  season  progresses,  the  song  becoming 
shorter  and  shorter  till  it  ceases  altogether. 

Mr.  Oldys  reports  that  he  has  noted  more  than 
eighty  different  wood  thrush  phrases,  and  he  says 
that  song  sparrows'  phrases  are  more  diverse  than 
those  of  wood  thrushes.  A  song  sparrow  has  been 
known  to  render  twelve  distinct  themes  in  fifteen 
minutes. 

Individual  differences  are  due,  not  only  to  the 
use  of  different  phrases,  but  also  to  the  way  in  which 
the  phrases  are  rendered.  There  may  be  excellent 
rendering  and  poor  rendering  of  the  same  phrase 
among  birds,  just  as  there  are  varying  degrees  of 
excellence  among  human  voices. 

Range  of  voice.  A  study  of  the  records  made  of 
bird  songs  suggests  the  pitch  and  range  for  different 
birds.  The  tones  of  nearly  all  birds  are  high-pitched, 
ranging  between  two  and  four  octaves  above  middle 
C.  The  range  of  voice  in  different  species  varies 
from  three  notes  for  the  chickadee  to  two  octaves 
for  the  hermit  thrush.  A  number  of  birds  have  a 
range  of  about  one  octave. 


BIRD  MUSIC  25 

Call  notes.  Besides  their  songs,  birds  also  make 
sounds  known  as  "call  notes,"  which  differ  from 
their  songs  in  about  the  same  way  that  human  lan- 
guage differs  from  human  songs.  These  call  notes 
probably  serve  the  purpose  of  a  language  by  which 
birds  communicate.  They  are  used  by  all  birds, 
both  male  and  female,  and  at  all  times  of  the  year. 
Some  birds  have  a  great  variety  of  call  notes,  each 
representing  some  emotion,  such  as  a  hunger  call, 
given  by  the  young  birds  in  the  nest;  the  lost  call  of 
a  young  bird  after  leaving  the  nest;  the  warning  call 
given  to  the  young  to  show  no  signs  of  life  in  the  face 
of  danger;  the  recognition  call,  by  which  individuals 
of  the  same  species  are  brought  together  in  flocks, 
especially  during  migration;  and  the  rally  cry  by 
which  other  birds  are  brought  to  the  spot.  An  ob- 
server of  the  crow  has  recorded  twenty-seven  dis- 
tinct calls  for  this  bird. 


CHAPTER  III 

BIRD  HOMES 

Courtship.  The  nesting-season  begins  with  the 
courtship  of  the  birds,  during  which  time  the  birds 
mate  in  preparation  for  the  nest-building  and  the 
rearing  of  the  young.  The  male  is  in  full  song  at  this 
time  and  frequently  performs  curious  antics  as  a 
means  of  attracting  the  attention  of  a  mate.  In 
some  cases  it  is  probable  that  birds  mate  for  only 
one  season,  while  in  other  cases  it  is  believed  that 
this  mating  lasts  for  life.  Some  birds,  such  as  pheas- 
ants, are  polygamous.  The  author  once  watched  a 
male  red- winged  blackbird  which  had  three  mates, 
each  with  a  nest  and  young  ones. 

Distinguishing  characteristics  of  nests.  After  the 
mating,  the  next  step  is  the  construction  of  the  nest. 
Each  species  builds  a  characteristic  nest  similar  to 
those  built  by  its  parents,  so  that  it  is  possible  from 
seeing  a  nest  to  tell  the  bird  which  made  it.  But 
while  the  nests  of  birds  of  the  same  species  are  quite 
similar,  yet  there  are  many  individual  variations 
within  these  limits  set  by  the  species.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  know  that  the  first  time  a  young  bird  builds 
a  nest,  it  uses  the  same  sort  of  material,  makes  the 
nest  of  the  same  shape,  and  constructs  it  in  the  same 


LONG-BILLED    MARSH    WREN    AT    NEST 


INSIDE   OF   HOUSE  WREN'S   NESTING-BOX 


BIRD  HOMES  27 

manner  as  did  its  parents  before  it,  although  it  has 
never  seen  a  nest  built. 

Time  of  building.  There  is  a  regular  time  and 
order  in  nest-building  as  there  is  in  migration, 
although  the  order  is  not  exactly  the  same.  In  any 
given  locality  certain  kinds  of  birds  begin  to  nest  at 
about  the  same  time  each  year;  in  some  species  the 
older  birds  beginning  to  nest  before  the  younger 
ones.  Certain  birds,  like  the  robin  and  bluebird,  are 
always  among  the  first  to  nest,  and  other  birds,  like 
the  cedar-bird  and  goldfinch,  are  always  among  the 
last  to  nest,  and  this  order  of  nesting  remains  the 
same  from  year  to  year.  In  the  northeastern  United 
States  the  first  birds  begin  to  nest  in  February  (the 
great  horned  owl),  the  last  begin  the  latter  part  of 
July  (goldfinch),  but  May  is  preeminently  the  nest- 
building  month.  Some  birds,  like  the  robin,  blue- 
bird, and  house  wren,  rear  two  broods,  and  this 
brings  the  nesting-season  well  along  into  the  mid- 
dle of  the  summer.  The  nesting-dates  for  a  few 
common  birds  are  given  in  the  table  on  pages  61 
and  62. 

Location  of  nest.  Nests  are  found  in  a  great  va- 
riety of  places.  Many  birds  nest  on  the  ground. 
Some  of  these,  such  as  the  bob-white  and  bobolink, 
build  their  nests  in  open  fields.  Others,  such  as  the 
ruffed  grouse  and  hermit  thrush,  build  their  nests  on 
the  ground  in  woods.  The  oven-bird  builds  an  arched 
nest  with  an  entrance  on  one  side.  Some  birds,  such 


28  BIRD  FRIENDS 

as  the  red- winged  blackbird  and  the  marsh  wren, 
build  their  nests  among  the  reeds  of  marshes,  a  few 
feet  from  the  ground.  Still  others,  as  the  field  spar- 
row, catbird,  chipping  sparrow,  and  many  warblers, 
build  in  low  shrubberies  or  small  trees.  Others,  as 
the  robin,  wood  thrush,  and  many  hawks,  place 
then*  nests  in  the  crotches  of  trees;  while  still  others, 
such  as  the  hummingbird  and  chebec,  saddle  them  on 
to  branches.  Others  hang  their  nests  from  branches, 
as  do  the  Baltimore  oriole  and  the  vireos.  The 
chimney  swift  glues  the  sticks  of  its  nest  together 
and  attaches  it  to  the  chimney  by  means  of  its 
sticky  saliva. 

Many  birds  nest  in  cavities  in  trees.  Some  birds, 
like  the  woodpeckers,  drill  these  holes  themselves. 
Other  birds,  such  as  the  house  wren,  bluebird,  and 
tree  swallow,  use  holes  which  they  find  already  made, 
either  by  woodpeckers  or  through  decay. 

Kingfishers  and  bank  swallows  dig  tunnels  in 
banks  and  rear  their  young  here.  These  tunnels  ex- 
tend from  three  to  eleven  feet.  At  the  end  of  the 
tunnel  the  swallow  makes  an  enlargement  and  con- 
structs a  nest  of  straw  and  feathers,  but  the  king- 
fisher usually  makes  no  nest. 

The  question  is  often  asked  whether  birds  use  the 
same  nest  more  than  once.  Birds  differ  in  this  re- 
spect. John  Burroughs  divided  birds  into  three 
groups.  One  group,  as  the  bluebird,  house  wren, 
fish  hawk,  and  eagle,  repairs  the  last  year's  nest. 


BIRD  HOMES  29 

A  second  group,  including  the  phcebe,  builds  a  new 
nest  each  season,  but  may  rear  more  than  one  brood 
in  the  nest.  A  third  group,  which  includes  most  of 
our  birds,  builds  a  new  nest  each  year  and  for  each 
brood  when  more  than  one  is  reared. 

Materials.  Birds  use  a  great  variety  of  materials 
in  the  construction  of  their  nests.  Among  the  more 
common  materials  are  dry  grass,  rootlets,  small 
twigs,  and  hair.  Robins  and  barn  swallows  use  mud. 
The  Baltimore  oriole  uses  string,  yarn,  and  hair.  The 
catbird  uses  strips  of  bark  from  the  grapevine.  The 
house  wren  fills  its  nesting-cavity  with  small  twigs. 
The  phcebe  constructs  its  nest  of  mosses  and  mud. 
Many  nests  contain  materials  which  man  has  indi- 
rectly furnished,  such  as  strings,  yarn,  pieces  of  cloth 
and  of  paper. 

The  nest  is  usually  lined  with  a  finer,  softer  ma- 
terial than  that  used  in  the  foundation.  The  chip- 
ping sparrow  uses  horsehair  for  a  lining,  and  many 
birds  use  a  very  fine  plant  down.  The  crested  fly- 
catcher almost  invariably  puts  into  its  nest  a  cast- 
off  snake-skin. 

Shape.  The  shape  of  the  nest  of  the  robin  and 
chebec  has  been  observed  in  a  number  of  cases  to  be 
moulded  by  the  breast  of  the  bird,  which  moves 
round  and  round  in  the  nest  fitting  it  to  the  breast. 

The  cavities  which  woodpeckers  make  are  found 
to  agree  in  general  shape.  This  cavity  is  not  simply 
a  hole  of  uniform  diameter,  but  it  is  somewhat  flask- 


SO  BIRD  FRIENDS 

shaped,  gradually  growing  larger  till  near  the  bottom, 
and  then  tapering  to  a  point.  The  only  materials 
in  the  woodpecker's  nest  are  the  chips  that  happen 
to  fall  down,  and  the  pointed  cavity  keeps  the  eggs 
from  rolling  around. 

The  marsh  wren  builds  a  globular  nest  attached 
to  the  reeds  of  the  marsh  and  makes  an  entrance  at 
one  side.  So  strongly  developed  is  the  nesting  in- 
stinct in  this  bird  that  it  builds  several  extra  nests 
besides  the  one  which  it  uses. 

Time  occupied  in  building.  Observations  have 
been  made  on  birds  while  building  nests  and  it  is 
found  that  the  time  occupied  in  building  the  nest 
varies,  both  with  the  species  of  bird  and  with  the 
same  species  at  different  times.  A  pair  of  house 
wrens  was  found  to  occupy  seven  days  in  construct- 
ing a  nest.  This  nest  contained  one  thousand  sticks, 
so  that  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  sticks  were 
brought  a  day,  or  an  average  of  ten  per  hour. 

Mr.  Francis  H.  Herrick  watched  a  pair  of  robins 
building  and  found  that  they  completed  the  nest  in 
three  days.  On  the  first  day  the  birds  worked  five 
hours;  on  the  second,  fourteen,  and  on  the  third 
four  and  one  half,  making  a  total  of  twenty-three 
and  one  half  hours.  On  the  first  day,  both  male  and 
female  worked;  on  the  second  and  third  days,  the 
female  alone.  During  this  time  two  hundred  and 
eighteen  loads  of  material  were  brought  to  the  nest. 
On  the  first  day  an  average  of  seventeen  visits  per 


YOUNG   GREEN    HERONS    IN    NEST 


TWO-STORIED    NEST   OF  YELLOW  WARBLER 

Showing  cowbird's  egg  sealed  in  lower  nest 


BIRD  HOMES  31 

hour  was  made;  on  the  second  day,  eight  visits;  and 
on  the  third  day,  five  visits. 

Cowbird.  The  cowbird  never  makes  a  nest  of  her 
own,  but  lays  her  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other  birds, 
and  these  eggs  are  usually  hatched  and  the  young 
reared  by  the  foster  mother.  These  eggs  are  gener- 
ally laid  in  the  nests  of  birds  smaller  than  the  cow- 
bird,  so  that  when  the  eggs  hatch,  the  young  cow- 
bird  gets  more  than  its  share  of  food  and  gradually 
either  starves  the  other  nestlings  or  crowds  them  out 
of  the  nest,  so  that  the  rearing  of  this  parasite  usu- 
ally means  the  destruction  of  all  the  other  nestlings. 

There  are  ninety  species  of  birds  on  which  the 
cowbird  has  been  known  to  impose  in  this  way. 
When  the  young  cowbird  is  full-grown  and  leaving 
the  nest,  it  is  a  most  curious  sight  to  see  the  little 
foster  mother  feed  her  adopted  baby.  Once  the 
author  saw  a  little  mother  redstart,  a  little  over 
five  inches  in  length,  following  around  and  feeding 
a  nearly  full-grown  cowbird  nestling,  about  eight 
inches  long.  The  little  mother  seemed  quite  as  con- 
cerned over  her  big  baby  as  she  would  have  been 
over  her  own  offspring. 

There  are  a  number  of  interesting  records  showing 
how  the  yellow  warbler  meets  this  difficulty.  When 
she  has  found  a  cowbird *s  egg  in  her  nest,  she  has 
been  known  to  make  another  nest  on  top  of  the  first, 
thus  sealing  up  the  intruder's  egg,  and  then  to  lay 
her  eggs  and  rear  her  young  in  the  second  story. 


32  BIRD  FRIENDS 

And  when  the  cowbird  has  visited  the  nest  again  and 
laid  her  egg  in  this  second  nest,  the  warbler  has  been 
known  to  build  a  third  nest  on  top  of  the  other  and 
there  rear  her  young,  in  the  third  story.  This  action 
certainly  strongly  suggests  some  degree  of  intelli- 
gence on  the  part  of  the  warbler. 

Number  of  broods.  The  general  rule  among  birds 
is  that  one  brood  is  reared  each  season,  but  a  num- 
ber of  common  birds,  such  as  the  robin,  bluebird, 
and  wren,  rear  two,  and  perhaps  occasionally  three 
broods;  and  the  English  sparrow  has  been  known  to 
rear  six  broods  in  a  season. 

Change  in  nesting-habits.  Many  birds  have 
changed  their  nesting-habits  to  adapt  themselves 
to  the  conditions  brought  about  by  man.  Chimney 
swifts,  which  formerly  nested  in  hollow  trees,  now 
nest  in  chimneys.  Cliff  swallows  now  nest  under 
eaves  instead  of  on  cliffs.  The  purple  martin  has 
left  its  nesting-sites  in  hollow  trees  and  now  nests  al- 
most entirely  in  houses  provided  for  it.  The  phcebe 
has  largely  abandoned  its  nesting-place  on  the  face 
of  cliffs  and  now  nests  around  sheds  and  barns  and 
under  bridges.  Many  birds  which  formerly  nested  in 
cavities  now  nest  in  boxes  provided  for  them.  The 
most  common  occupants  of  these  houses  are  wrens, 
bluebirds,  and  martins. 


CHAPTER  IV 

HOME   LIFE   OF   BIRDS 

The  eggs.  The  most  common  colors  found  among 
birds'  eggs  are  white  and  various  shades  of  brown  and 
blue.  It  seems  to  be  a  general  rule  that  eggs  which 
are  laid  in  cavities,  where  they  are  not  easily  seen, 
like  the  woodpeckers',  are  white;  and  those  which 
are  laid  in  more  exposed  positions  take  on  some 
brighter  color.  But  there  are  exceptions  to  these 
generalizations.  Some  eggs  are  of  a  uniform  color, 
while  others  are  spotted  or  mottled.  The  number 
of  eggs  laid  varies  from  one  to  twenty.  For  most  of 
our  common  land-birds  the  number  ranges  from  four 
to  six. 

Incubation.  The  period  of  incubation  ranges  from 
twelve  days  for  a  small  bird  like  the  chipping  spar- 
row to  twenty-eight  days  for  a  large  bird  like  the 
osprey.  The  larger  the  egg,  the  longer  the  time  usu- 
ally required  for  incubation.  The  work  of  incubation 
is  done  chiefly  by  the  female,  but  in  some  cases  the 
male  may  help,  or  the  male  may  feed  the  female  on 
the  nest.  While  the  female  is  incubating  the  eggs, 
one  of  the  chief  duties  of  the  male  is  to  drive  away 
any  intruding  birds  or  animals  that  may  come  within 
a  certain  distance. 


34  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Condition  of  young  at  birth.  For  the  most  part 
the  lower  forms  of  birds  are  precocial,  the  young 
being  ready  to  walk  when  first  hatched;  the  higher 
forms  are  altricial,  the  young  being  helpless  and  re- 
quiring the  care  of  the  parents.  This  constant  care 
of  the  young  is  a  sign  of  advancement  among  all 
animals.  Probably  the  first  birds  were  all  precocial 
and  some  gradually  evolved  the  altricial  habit. 

Time  in  nest.  The  time  that  the  altricial  birds 
remain  in  the  nest  varies  with  the  size  of  the  birds. 
In  general  the  larger  birds  remain  longer  in  the  nest 
than  do  the  smaller  birds.  In  the  case  of  the  song 
sparrow,  the  young  may  leave  the  nest  at  the  end  of 
a  week,  while  some  birds  may  remain  several  months 
in  the  nest;  but  for  most  of  our  common  birds  the 
time  averages  about  two  weeks. 

The  following  tables  give  in  brief  form  some  facts 
regarding  the  nesting-habits  of  a  few  birds.  These 
figures  represent  observations  made  of  a  particular 
pair  of  birds.  Observations  on  other  birds  of  the 
same  species  would  doubtless  give  different  figures. 
But  these  results  give  at  least  an  approximate  idea 
of  the  time  involved  in  these  various  activities.  The 
incompleteness  of  this  table  suggests  how  many 
things  are  yet  to  be  learned  about  the  habits  of  our 
common  birds. 

The  work  of  the  parent  birds  in  rearing  their  young 
consists  chiefly  in  three  activities:  feeding  the  young, 
cleaning  the  nest,  and  brooding  the  young. 


HOME  LIFE  OF  BIRDS 


35 


Name  of  bird 

Time  taken  to 
build  nests 
(days) 

Number 
of  eggs 

Time  in 
laying  eggs 
(days) 

Period  of 
incubation 
(days) 

Time  in 
nest 
(days) 

Cedar-bird  .  .  . 
Bluebird 

2 

7 

4 

3 

4 
3 

10 
15 

14 
19 

Kingbird  .... 
Kingfisher.  .  . 
Nighthawk... 
Baltimore 
oriole  
Robin  

7 
3 

4 

5 
1 

5 
3 

13 

14 
14 

18 
25 
18 

14 
12 

Phoebe  

5 

12 

14 

Song  sparrow. 
English   spar- 
row   
Wood  thrush  . 
House  wren.  . 

4 

7 

5 

5 
4 

7 

7 

12 

12 

13 

7 
7 
17 

Feeding  the  young.  Birds  eat  enormous  amounts 
of  food  and  grow  with  remarkable  rapidity.  Obser- 
vations made  on  young  birds  show  that  they  may 
eat  their  own  weight  of  food  in  a  day  and  increase  in 
weight  fifty  per  cent.  One  observer  watched  a  nest 
of  cedar  waxwings  and  weighed  the  young  each  day 
till  they  left  the  nest.  He  found  that  the  weight  of 
one  nestling  was  doubled  on  the  first  day,  more  than 
trebled  on  the  second,  and  nearly  quadrupled  on  the 
third.  By  the  twelfth  day  it  had  increased  in  weight 
thirteen  fold,  and  was  nearly  three  times  as  long  as 
when  first  hatched. 

The  parents  usually  begin  to  feed  the  young  at 
about  sunrise  and  continue  till  sunset,  making  a 
working  day  of  about  fifteen  hours.  Observations 


36  BIRD  FRIENDS 

show  that  on  the  average  many  birds  feed  their 
young  about  every  four  minutes,  or  about  two  hun- 
dred times  a  day. 

In  order  to  convey  some  idea  of  the  vast  amount 
of  food  consumed  by  nestlings,  a  table  is  given  below 
showing  the  number  of  times  the  young  are  fed 
hourly,  during  the  day,  as  learned  from  actual  ob- 
servation. The  number  of  visits  varies  with  the  age 
of  nestlings,  as  they  are  generally  fed  oftener  when 
nearly  fledged  than  when  first  hatched. 


Name  of  bird 

Times  family 
fed  in  one 
hour 

Number 
of  nestlings 

Age  of 
nestling 
(days) 

Red-winged  blackbird 
Bluebird 

10 
13 

3 
3 

10 
5 

Catbird   

13 

4 

7 

Cedar-bird  
Rose-breasted  gros- 
beak 

6 
40 

4 
4 

9 

Not  recorded 

Kingbird 

23 

4 

12 

Baltimore  oriole.    .    . 

19 

4 

10 

Phoebe  

17 

2 

4 

Robin  

7 

3 

9 

Song  sparrow  

17 

4 

7 

Tree  swallow 

14 

6 

13 

Red-eyed  vireo 

7 

2 

7 

House  wren  

19 

4 

3 

Average  

15 

Kind  of  food.  The  kind  of  food  fed  the  young  is 
usually  the  same  kind  that  the  adults  use,  which  for 
most  birds  is  insects,  but  in  the  case  of  the  seed-eat- 
ing birds,  like  sparrows,  the  young  are  fed  at  first 


HOME  LIFE  OF  BIRDS  37 

almost  exclusively  on  insects.  The  most  common 
kinds  of  food  are  caterpillars,  spiders,  and  grass- 
hoppers. Some  birds  feed  fruit  to  their  young,  the 
kingfishers  feed  fish,  and  hawks  and  owls  feed  mice 
and  other  rodents. 

Large  insects  are  frequently  broken  into  smaller 
pieces  by  the  parents  before  being  fed  to  the  young. 
Some  birds,  like  the  hummingbird  and  flicker,  feed 
their  young  by  regurgitation.  The  food  is  first  par- 
tially digested  in  the  crop  or  stomach  of  the  parent 
bird  and  then  fed  to  the  young  by  the  parent  bird's 
inserting  its  bill  far  into  the  mouth  of  the  nestling. 
As  a  prevention  against  overfeeding,  young  birds 
have  an  instinctive  response  in  the  throat.  The 
parents  place  the  food  in  the  throat,  and  if  the 
gullet  is  already  full,  the  throat  does  not  respond, 
and  the  parent  removes  the  food  and  puts  it  into 
the  throat  of  another,  till  one  is  found  which  does 
respond. 

Cleaning  the  nest.  Another  duty  of  the  parents  is 
to  keep  the  nest  clean.  The  excreta  of  the  young  are 
voided  in  membranous  sacs,  and  these  are  either 
removed  by  the  parent  or  swallowed. 

Brooding.  During  hot  days  birds  may  frequently 
be  seen  brooding  their  young.  They  stand  with 
spreading  wings  and  tail  shielding  the  young  from 
the  sun's  rays,  often  themselves  panting  with  wide- 
opened  bills.  During  hot  days  this  may  occupy  a 
large  portion  of  the  bird's  time,  the  bird  sometimes 


38  BIRD  FRIENDS 

remaining  for  a  period  of  forty  minutes  without  leav- 
ing. In  the  same  way  the  birds  may  protect  their 
young  from  rain. 

A  house  wren's  day.  In  order  to  give  some  idea 
of  the  activities  of  birds  while  rearing  their  young, 
the  following  account  of  a  day's  observations  of  a 
pair  of  house  wrens  is  given. 

During  the  summer  of  1913  the  class  in  nature- 
study  at  the  Mankato  State  Normal  School  kept  a 
detailed  record  for  one  day  of  the  feeding  activities 
of  a  pair  of  house  wrens  which  reared  their  young  in 
a  nesting-house  located  on  the  writer's  grounds.  The 
class  was  divided  into  ten  sections  and  each  section 
watched  the  birds  for  an  hour  and  a  half.  The 
young  wrens  were  two  days  old.  The  day  was  a 
typical,  clear  summer  day  with  the  temperature  67 
degrees  at  4  o'clock  A.M.  In  the  afternoon  there  was 
a  heavy  shower. 

The  observations  began  at  4  A.M.,  a  half -hour  be- 
fore sunrise,  and  extended  till  8.20  P.M.,  a  half-hour 
after  sunset.  The  birds  began  to  feed  their  young  at 
4.36,  three  minutes  before  sunrise,  and  continued 
till  7.58,  thirteen  minutes  after  sunset,  thus  making 
a  working  day  of  fifteen  hours  and  twenty-two  min- 
utes. At  the  end  of  the  day  the  records  were  summar- 
ized with  the  following  results :  The  young  birds  were 
fed  two  hundred  and  thirty-eight  times,  two  hun- 
dred and  eighteen  by  the  female,  eighteen  by  the 
male,  and  on  two  visits  the  sex  was  not  deter- 


A  WREN    MOTHER   AND    HER   FAMILY 


MOTHER    WORKS    WHILE   FATHER    SINGS 
Pair  of  house  wrens 


HOME  LIFE  OF  BIRDS 


39 


mined.  The  following  table  shows  the  summary  by 
hours :  — 


Hour 

By  female 

By  male 

Sex  unde- 
termined 

Total 

4  30-  5 

6 

0 

6 

5     -  6  . 

20 

1 

21 

6      -  7 

17 

0 

17 

7      -  8 

14 

1 

15 

8     -  9  . 

15 

0 

2 

17 

9      -10  .             

19 

2 

21 

10     -11  

14 

0 

14 

11      -12  

12 

1 

13 

12     -  1 

17 

2 

19 

1      -2 

10 

1 

11 

2      -  3 

17 

2 

19 

3      -  4  . 

13 

4 

17 

4      -  5  . 

16 

1 

17 

5     -  6  (heavy  shower)  . 
6     -7  

8 
10 

0 
1 

8 
11 

7     -8  

10 

2 

12 

Total   

218 

18 

2 

238 

Average  per  hour  

14 

1 

15 

The  longest  time  between  any  two  consecutive 
feedings  was  twelve  minutes,  except  during  the 
shower,  when  a  period  of  sixteen  minutes  elapsed. 
The  shortest  time  between  two  consecutive  feedings 
by  the  same  parent  was  one  half-minute.  The  male 
was  singing  most  of  the  day.  Frequently  he  sang 
with  an  insect  in  his  closed  bill,  sometimes  waiting 
several  minutes  before  feeding  the  young.  Three 
times  during  the  day  he  drove  away  a  red  squirrel, 
and  once  another  wren. 

During  the  remainder  of  the  time  that  the  young 
were  in  the  nest,  they  were  watched  occasionally 


40  BIRD  FRIENDS 

from  day  to  day  for  short  periods,  with  the  follow- 
ing results : — 


Number  of  times  fed 

Aae  of 

Nest 

Date 

Time 

young 

cleaned 

-    ^ 

(days) 

By 

fe- 
male 

By 

male 

Sex 
un- 
known 

Total 

(times) 

July   4 

12-  1  P.M. 

5 

12 

7 

19 

July    6 

12-  1  P.M. 

7 

11 

3 

2 

16 

6 

July  11 

5-  6  P.M. 

12 

12 

10 

3 

25 

5 

July  13 

9-10  A.M. 

14 

10 

12 

22 

6 

July  13 

1-  2  P.M. 

14 

11 

10 

21 

4 

July  13 

4-  5  P.M. 

14 

8 

6 

2 

16 

4 

July  13 

6-  7  P.M. 

14 

10 

10 

•• 

20 

2 

On  July  14  the  young  birds  left  the  nest. 

As  shown  by  the  above  table,  on  July  13,  when 
the  young  were  fourteen  days  old,  the  birds  were 
watched  for  four  hours  at  different  times  of  the  day, 
showing  an  average  of  nineteen  and  three  fourths 
feedings  per  hour.  For  the  day  of  fifteen  hours,  this 
would  mean  three  hundred  and  three  times  per  day. 
Taking  the  average  between  this  and  two  hundred 
and  thirty-eight,  the  times  the  young  were  fed  when 
two  days  old,  we  get  two  hundred  and  seventy  times 
as  the  average  number  of  times  the  young  were  fed 
daily  during  the  period  they  were  in  the  nest.  Mul- 
tiplying this  by  fifteen,  the  number  of  days  the 
young  were  in  the  nest,  gives  four  thousand  and 
fifty  as  the  total  number  of  times  the  young  were  fed. 
As  the  parent  often  brought  more  than  one  insect 


HOME  LIFE  OF  BIRDS  41 

at  a  visit,  the  rearing  of  this  wren  family  meant  the 
destruction  of  from  four  to  five  thousand  insects. 

The  largest  number  of  times  the  young  were  fed 
in  an  hour  was  twenty-five,  immediately  after  a 
storm  when  the  young  were  twelve  days  old.  The 
smallest  number  of  tunes  was  eight  during  a  heavy 
shower  when  the  birds  were  two  days  old. 

During  the  first  days  of  rearing  the  young,  most 
of  the  feeding  was  done  by  the  female  alone,  but  later 
more  assistance  was  given  by  the  male,  until  on  the 
last  day  the  work  was  about  equally  divided  be- 
tween them. 

During  the  summer  of  1914,  a  pair  of  Baltimore 
orioles  was  watched  in  a  similar  way  for  a  day.  The 
parents  began  to  feed  at  4.45  A.M.,  and  finished  at 
8.45  P.M.,  a  period  of  sixteen  hours.  Altogether  the 
young  were  fed  two  hundred  and  eighty-five  times, 
one  hundred  and  fifty -four  by  the  female  and  one 
hundred  and  thirty-one  by  the  male,  or  an  average 
of  nineteen  times  an  hour. 

Devotion  of  parents.  While  caring  for  their 
young,  birds  show  a  most  remarkable  devotion,  sel- 
dom deserting  their  nest,  regardless  of  what  may 
happen.  They  show  reckless  courage  in  trying  to 
protect  their  young  from  intruders,  sometimes  even 
striking  a  person  with  their  bills. 

Care  after  leaving  the  nest.  After  the  young 
leave  the  nest,  they  must  be  taught  many  lessons 
before  they  are  able  to  care  for  themselves.  One  of 


42  BIRD  FRIENDS 

the  first  lessons  learned  is  how  to  fly.  The  parents 
will  often  hold  the  food  in  front  of  the  young  and  fly 
from  branch  to  branch  to  induce  the  young  to  do  the 
same.  The  young  must  also  be  taught  where  to  find 
their  own  food  and  how  to  pick  it  up.  When  the 
young  first  leave  the  nest,  they  do  not  even  know 
how  to  pick  up  an  insect.  If  food  is  brought  and 
placed  beside  them,  they  stand  with  heads  thrown 
back  and  mouths  wide  open,  expecting  to  be  fed 
as  they  always  have  been  while  in  the  nest,  and 
make  no  attempt  to  pick  up  the  food.  The  parents 
teach  the  young  by  doing  the  action  over  and  over 
again  before  them,  and  then  leaving  the  young  be- 
side the  food  for  a  long  time.  And  besides  these 
there  are  many  other  lessons  the  young  birds  must 
learn. 

This  period  of  schooling  is  very  brief,  probably 
only  a  few  weeks,  and  in  the  case  of  birds  that  rear 
two  broods,  the  first  brood  is  hardly  properly  taught 
before  the  second  brood  is  started. 

Enemies.  During  the  tune  that  the  young  are  in 
the  nest  and  for  a  short  time  just  after  leaving  it,  the 
birds  are  exposed  to  many  dangers  and  fall  victims 
to  their  many  enemies.  Probably  only  a  small  pro- 
portion of  young  birds  ever  reach  maturity.  From 
the  time  the  first  egg  is  laid,  the  difficulties  arise. 
Some  enemies  destroy  the  eggs;  such  as  the  crow, 
blue  jay,  and  red  squirrel.  And  sometimes  boy  egg- 
collectors  may  devastate  a  whole  neighborhood. 


HOME  LIFE  OF  BIRDS  43 

When  the  young  are  hatched,  they  are  utterly  help- 
less and  fall  a  prey  to  any  enemy  that  can  reach  the 
nest.  Undoubtedly  the  worst  enemy  of  nesting  birds 
is  the  cat.  It  finds  the  nests  on  the  ground  and 
climbs  to  nests  situated  in  trees,  and  easily  catches 
the  young  birds  just  as  they  are  learning  to  fly,  and 
may  even  kill  the  old  birds  while  they  are  defending 
their  young.  Another  very  destructive  enemy  is  the 
squirrel,  which  is  able  to  reach  almost  any  nest. 
Then,  too,  many  birds  are  destroyed  by  unfavorable 
weather,  by  hailstorms  and  cold  rainstorms,  which 
chill  the  birds  and  reduce  the  food-supply  to  the  star- 
vation point.  Ground-nesting  birds  on  the  farm  are 
exposed  to  the  dangers  of  mowing  and  other  farm 
operations.  Mr.  Frank  M.  Chapman  has  well  said, 
"With  such  an  array  of  adverse  conditions  and  re- 
lentless foes,  the  bird  which  reaches  maturity  may 
be  said  to  have  escaped  nine  tenths  of  the  dangers 
to  which  bird  flesh  is  heir." 


CHAPTER  V 

THE   COLORS  AND   PLUMAGE   OF  BIRDS 

Moulting  of  scarlet  tanager.  The  bright  colors  of 
plumage  found  on  some  birds  have  been  one  means 
of  attracting  attention  to  the  study  of  bird  life. 
Quite  as  interesting  as  the  bright  colors  themselves 
are  the  changes  in  color  through  which  a  bird  may 
pass  during  a  year.  The  case  of  the  scarlet  tanager 
may  be  taken  as  an  illustration.  When  the  young 
bird  first  leaves  the  nest,  its  general  color  is  yellow- 
ish green  above  and  streaked  below.  During  the  fall 
these  feathers  are  moulted  and  a  new  set  appears, 
the  bird  being  olive  green  above  and  greenish  yellow 
below,  with  brown  wings  and  tail.  The  bird  passes 
the  winter  in  this  plumage,  that  of  the  male  and 
female  being  similar.  In  the  spring  the  bird  again 
moults  and  the  male  acquires  the  bright-red  body 
feathers,  while  the  female  retains  its  olive-green  color. 
These  are  the  breeding-plumages  which  the  birds  re- 
tain during  the  summer.  In  the  fall  the  birds  moult 
again  and  the  male  again  acquires  the  greenish  plum- 
age of  the  previous  winter  except  that  its  wings  and 
tail  are  now  black  instead  of  brown. 

Moulting.  All  birds  moult  in  the  fall,  and  when 
the  male  in  his  summer  plumage  is  more  brightly 


COLORS  AND  PLUMAGE  OF  BIRDS       45 

colored  than  the  female,  he  takes  on  during  the  win- 
ter a  duller  color  similar  to  that  of  the  female.  Some 
birds  moult  again  in  the  spring,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
brightly  colored  birds  just  mentioned,  when  the  male 
again  acquires  his  bright  breeding-plumage.  Some- 
times this  moult  is  complete,  sometimes  only  par- 
tial. 

Change  due  to  wear.  A  bird's  color  may  also 
change  by  wear  and  fading.  The  tip  of  a  feather  may 
be  of  a  different  color  from  the  rest  of  the  feather, 
and  when  this  tip  wears  off,  another  color  will  be  ex- 
posed. When  the  male  bobolink  first  moults  in  the 
spring,  it  is  of  a  yellowish  color,  due  to  yellow  tips 
on  the  feathers.  In  a  few  weeks  these  yellow  tips 
wear  off  exposing  the  black  and  giving  the  bird  its 
characteristic  summer  plumage.  Other  illustrations 
are  found  in  the  snow  bunting  and  red-winged 
blackbird. 

Changes  in  color.  The  color  of  an  individual  bird 
may  change  in  accordance  with  two  factors,  age  and 
season.  The  plumage  of  the  nestling  is  often  differ- 
ent in  color  from  that  which  it  later  acquires.  When 
the  male  and  female  are  differently  colored,  the 
young  usually  resemble  the  female,  as  with  the  gold- 
finch and  scarlet  tanager.  In  the  case  of  the  blue- 
bird, however,  the  young  birds  have  spotted  breasts 
and  resemble  neither  of  the  adults  entirely,  although 
even  here  the  general  color  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
female.  When  the  male  and  female  are  alike,  the 


46  BIRD  FRIENDS 

young  usually  resemble  them,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
chickadee.  But  in  the  case  of  the  red-headed  wood- 
pecker, the  young  lack  the  brightly  colored  feathers 
that  both  adults  possess  on  the  head. 

The  color  of  a  bird  may  also  change  according  to 
season.  In  the  case  of  those  birds  in  which  the  male 
and  female  are  differently  colored,  the  male  has  two 
distinct  plumages,  that  of  the  summer,  which  is  usu- 
ally conspicuously  colored,  and  that  of  the  winter, 
which  is  usually  dull-colored.  And  during  the  two 
moulting  periods  when  the  bird  is  changing  from  one 
plumage  to  another,  it  may  show  a  partial  combina- 
tion of  both  plumages. 

Differences  in  sex.  Some  species  of  birds  show  a 
difference  in  color  between  the  male  and  the  female. 
Sometimes  this  difference  may  be  slight,  as  in  the 
yellow  warbler,  Baltimore  oriole,  and  bluebird,  in- 
volving only  different  shades  of  the  same  color;  or 
it  may  be  extremely  conspicuous,  involving  an  entire 
change  of  color,  as  with  the  red-winged  blackbird 
and  its  sparrow-like  mate,  the  scarlet  tanager  and 
its  greenish  mate,  the  rose-breasted  grosbeak  and  its 
brownish  mate.  Other  examples  are  the  indigo 
bunting,  goldfinch,  and  bobolink. 

Protective  coloration.  Naturalists  are  not  agreed 
as  to  the  significance  of  the  extremely  bright  colors 
found  on  some  birds,  but  it  seems  to  be  a  very  gen- 
eral law  that  the  coloring  of  many  birds  is  such  as 
to  render  them  inconspicuous  and  thus  furnish  pro- 


BALTIMORE   ORIOLE 
Upper,  male  ;  lower,  female 


COLORS  AND  PLUMAGE  OF  BIRDS       47 

tection  from  their  enemies;  hence  the  term,  "pro- 
tective coloration."  Many  birds  that  live  on  the 
ground,  such  as  the  ruffed  grouse  and  woodcock,  are 
so  similar  in  appearance  to  their  surroundings  that 
the  birds  are  rendered  almost  invisible. 

Many  birds  are  protected  by  the  law  of  coun- 
ter-shading. The  back  which  is  exposed  to  the  light, 
is  darker  than  the  breast,  which  is  in  the  shadow,  and 
the  sides  gradually  shade  from  dark  above  to  light 
below.  The  effect  of  this  gradation  in  coloring  is  to 
make  the  bird  so  harmonize  with  its  surroundings 
that  it  is  rendered  much  less  conspicuous  than  it 
would  otherwise  be.  It  is  very  common  to  find  birds 
with  the  under  parts  lighter  colored  than  the  upper 
parts;  such  as  the  house  wren,  phoebe,  red-eyed 
vireo,  cuckoo,  and  many  others.  This  law  has  been 
worked  out  and  proved  by  means  of  interesting  ex- 
periments by  Abbott  H.  Thayer. 


CHAPTER  VI 

HOW   TO   KNOW   THE   BIRDS 

Attractions  of  bird-study.  The  only  way  really  to 
know  the  birds  is  to  study  them  in  the  field  in  their 
natural  environment.  Bird-study  furnishes  one  of 
the  most  attractive  hobbies.  The  pleasure  that 
birds  furnish  in  this  way  makes  their  aesthetic  value 
quite  as  important  as  their  economic  value.  Bird  ac- 
tivities pass  through  so  many  changes  in  the  course 
of  a  year  that  there  is  no  opportunity  for  bird- 
study  to  become  monotonous.  Then,  too,  bird-study 
takes  one  out  into  the  fields,  in  the  open,  so  that  the 
setting  in  which  bird-study  is  carried  on  is  in  itself 
attractive.  While  the  individuals  of  a  species 
change,  the  species  remains  about  the  same  to  us, 
and  thus  we  come  to  associate  with  certain  birds 
some  of  our  pleasantest  reminiscences.  People  and 
conditions  in  our  former  homes  may  change,  but  as 
we  return  to  visit  these  scenes  of  our  younger  days, 
the  bird  life  remains  unchanged  to  welcome  us  and 
remind  us  of  former  days.  ^ 

While  special  trips  to  the  woods  and  water  to  look 
for  birds  offer  many  pleasant  hours,  yet,  perhaps, 
the  greatest  pleasure  from  bird-study  comes  through 
the  observation  of  the  birds  found  around  one's 


HOW  TO  KNOW  THE  BIRDS  49 

home,  as  one  sits  on  the  porch  and  watches  the  wrens 
and  bluebirds  rear  their  young  in  the  houses  pro- 
vided for  them,  or  sees  the  robins  and  flickers  that 
dot  the  lawn  in  search  of  insects,  or  hears  the  bird 
chorus  that  swells  through  the  open  window  as  one 
awakens  in  the  early  spring  morn.  The  pleasure 
thus  derived  is  the  lasting,  unconscious  enjoyment 
that  becomes  an  intimate  part  of  one's  life. 

Birds  also  appeal  to  the  imagination  on  account  of 
the  annual  cycle  of  life  changes  through  which  they 
pass  over  and  over  again  year  after  year.  It  seems 
as  though  every  spring  birds  were  reborn  and  lived 
their  lives  over  again,  so  that  youth  seems  forever 
renewed  with  the  return  of  the  first  birds. 

There  are  all  stages  of  attainment  possible  to  suit 
every  condition,  from  the  identifying  of  a  few  birds 
in  the  field  up  to  the  most  careful  study  of  bird  hab- 
its, which  may  occupy  one's  entire  time.  One  of  the 
most  satisfactory  methods  of  studying  bird  life  is  to 
observe  close  at  hand  in  one's  yard  the  birds  that 
may  be  attracted  there  by  nesting-houses,  foun- 
tains, and  food.  This  will  be  discussed  more  fully  in 
the  chapters  on  attracting  birds. 

Identification.  The  first  step  in  bird-study  is  the 
identification  of  birds.  Learning  a  bird's  name  is 
much  like  an  introduction  to  a  person;  it  is  a  means 
by  which  a  new  friendship  may  be  formed.  But  there 
is  a  great  deal  of  pleasure  in  merely  learning  to  name 
the  birds.  Many  people  will  never  care  to  go  beyond 


50  tBIRD  FRIENDS 

this  point  in  bird-study.  The  ability  to  name  the 
birds  from  year  to  year  as  they  return  in  the  spring 
is  one  of  the  chief  pleasures  in  bird-study,  and  gives 
a  sort  of  feeling  of  friendship  for  the  birds.  But 
in  the  process  of  learning  the  names  of  birds,  one 
of  necessity  learns  many  interesting  things  about 
them.  There  is  a  sort  of  fascination  to  see  if  one  can 
learn  to  name  all  the  birds  of  a  locality.  It  serves  as  an 
incentive  from  year  to  year,  as  one  recognizes  the  old 
friends,  to  try  each  year  to  make  a  few  new  friends, 
as  well  as  to  get  better  acquainted  with  the  old. 

Equipment.  In  order  to  name  the  birds,  the  first 
essential  is  a  bird  book.  There  is  a  great  variety  of 
books  on  the  market  adapted  to  every  requirement. 
For  the  purpose  of  identification  the  most  helpful 
books  are  those  that  contain  colored  pictures.  For 
a  beginner  in  bird-study,  who  knows  only  a  few 
birds,  Reed's  "  Land  Birds"  is  well  adapted.  This 
contains  a  small  colored  picture  of  every  land  bird 
in  the  eastern  United  States,  accompanied  by  a  brief 
description  of  the  bird.  This  is  a  small  book  and 
can  easily  be  carried  in  the  field.  Mr.  Reed  has  a 
companion  volume  entitled  "Water  Birds,"  on  the 
same  general  plan.  These  books  cost  from  seventy- 
five  cents  to  one  dollar  and  a  quarter,  according  to 
the  binding. 

After  one  has  made  a  beginning  and  can  name 
twenty-five  or  thirty  birds,  an  excellent  book  for 
general  reference  is  Chapman's  "Handbook  of  Birds 


TOWHEE,    OR   CHEWINK 
Upper,  male  ;  lower,  female 


HOW  TO  KNOW  THE  BIRDS  51 

of  Eastern  North  America."  This  contains  a  de- 
tailed description  of  all  the  birds  of  eastern  North 
America,  and  about  one  hundred  pages  of  reading 
matter  about  bird  habits.  This  costs  three  dollars 
and  a  half.  Another  helpful  book  for  identification 
is  Ralph  Hoffmann's  "Guide  to  the  Birds  of  New 
England  and  Eastern  New  York." 

Provided  with  these  books  one  may  hope  to 
name  most  of  the  common  birds.  These  and  other 
bird  books  may  be  obtained  through  bookstores  or 
through  the  National  Association  of  Audubon  So- 
cieties, 1974  Broadway,  New  York  City. 

If  one  has  access  to  a  museum  with  a  collection  of 
birds,  the  study  of  the  specimens  there  will  be  a  great 
help  in  identifying  the  birds  found  in  the  field,  but 
pictures  may  serve  as  a  satisfactory  substitute. 
Separate  colored  plates  of  birds  may  be  obtained  of 
the  Association  of  Audubon  Societies,  just  men- 
tioned, at  two  cents  each.  The  pictures  of  about 
ninety  birds  have  been  issued  so  far  and  new  ones 
are  being  made  each  year. 

A  pan*  of  opera-  or  field-glasses  is  a  wonderful  help 
to  bird-study.  Some  birds  are  easily  frightened,  and 
often  it  is  not  possible  to  approach  near  enough  to 
see  them  distinctly  without  glasses.  Many  of  our 
common  birds  have  become  accustomed  to  man  and 
allow  one  to  approach  them  closely,  but  glasses  add 
much  pleasure  to  bird-study  and  render  it  much 
more  effective  and  satisfactory.  A  very  good  glass, 


52  BIRD  FRIENDS 

magnifying  three  diameters,  may  be  obtained  for 
six  dollars  from  the  National  Association  of  Audu- 
bon  Societies. 

Points  to  observe.  Color  is  the  best  aid  in  the 
identification  of  birds  in  the  field.  When  a  new  bird 
is  seen,  a  record  should  be  made  at  the  time,  in  a 
notebook  provided  for  the  purpose,  of  the  color 
markings  and  their  location,  whether  on  head,  back, 
tail,  wings,  or  breast.  The  size  should  be  noted  in 
comparison  with  some  well-known  bird,  like  the 
robin  or  English  sparrow.  The  shape  of  the  bill  is 
also  a  help  in  identification.  Shapes  of  wings  and 
peculiarities  in  method  of  flight  should  be  noted. 
Some  birds  are  on  the  wing  almost  constantly. 

Some  birds  have  white  lateral  tail  feathers,  which 
show  only  in  flight,  and  these  make  good  field  marks 
for  identification.  These  are  found  on  the  vesper 
sparrow,  junco,  meadowlark,  and  towhee. 

Some  birds  are  usually  found  on  tree-trunks;  as 
the  woodpeckers,  the  nuthatch,  and  the  brown 
creeper.  The  nuthatch  can  be  told  by  its  method  of 
hopping  down  the  tree-trunk  head  first. 

One  of  the  best  ways  of  identifying  birds  is 
through  their  songs.  Birds  can  thus  be  identified 
at  a  long  distance  and  when  hidden  in  the  foliage 
of  trees  and  shrubs.  It  is  difficult  to  make  a  record 
of  these  songs  that  will  help  any  one  else,  but  some 
record  made  at  the  time  may  help  the  one  making 
it  in  identifying  the  bird  later. 


HOW  TO  KNOW  THE  BIRDS  53 

Many  birds  have  one  or  two  conspicuous  field 
marks  by  which  they  may  be  identified.  So  that  it 
is  not  necessary  to  make  a  detailed  description  of 
every  part  of  all  birds  seen,  as  one  soon  comes  to 
learn  these  conspicuous  markings  and  to  name  the 
birds  from  them. 

Where  to  find  birds.  The  best  place  to  begin  the 
study  of  birds  is  right  around  one's  own  home,  if  this 
be  situated  in  the  country  or  a  small  town,  or  on  the 
edge  of  a  city.  Many  birds  prefer  to  live  around 
human  habitations  if  the  houses  are  not  too  thickly 
crowded  together.  If  measures  are  taken  to  attract 
birds  and  if  they  are  protected  from  their  enemies, 
the  number  of  birds  found  around  one's  home  may 
be  increased.  The  birds  found  here  one  may  enjoy 
at  all  times  without  undertaking  any  special  bird 
trips.  If  one  lives  in  a  city,  the  parks  are  good 
places  in  which  to  study  birds,  especially  during 
the  spring  migration.  In  the  Boston  Public  Gar- 
den, one  hundred  and  ten  species  have  been  re- 
ported in  nine  years;  in  Lincoln  Park,  Chicago,  one 
hundred  and  fourteen  species  have  been  seen;  and 
in  Central  Park,  New  York  City,  one  hundred  and 
forty  species  have  been  recorded.  In  a  little  book  by 
Herbert  E.  and  Alice  H.  Walter,  entitled"  Wild  Birds 
in  City  Parks,"  the  authors  write  in  their  preface:  — 

!  Any  one  caring  to  make  use  of  these  hints  may  be 
assured  that  during  the  migrations  of  the  birds,  city 
dwellers  have  one  of  the  keenest  delights  of  country  life 


54  BIRD  FRIENDS 

brought  to  their  very  doors,  because  many  birds,  migrat- 
ing largely  at  night,  are  attracted  by  the  lights  of  the  city 
and  stop  off  hi  their  long  journey  to  feed,  so  that  a  city 
park  often  contains  a  greater  variety  of  feathered  visitors 
than  an  equal  area  in  the  country. 

One  will  see  a  greater  variety  of  birds  if  he  visits 
a  number  of  different  localities.  Some  birds  have 
certain  habitats  where  they  are  chiefly  found.  In  the 
swamps  are  found  water-birds,  which  are  not  often 
found  elsewhere.  In  the  woods  one  is  more  apt  to 
see  the  vireos,  warblers,  and  some  of  the  thrushes. 
In  the  meadows  are  found  the  bobolinks  and  some 
of  the  sparrows.  The  orchard  is  a  locality  where  a 
great  variety  of  birds  may  be  found. 

When  to  find  birds.  A  good  time  to  begin  the 
study  of  birds  is  in  the  late  winter  or  early  spring. 
The  number  of  birds  seen  at  this  time  is  compara- 
tively small,  and  it  is  not  so  confusing  to  the  beginner 
as  it  is  later  when  the  birds  are  numerous.  By  start- 
ing at  this  time  one  may  learn  a  few  birds  at  a  time 
and  keep  increasing  the  number  as  the  later  mi- 
grants arrive.  Another  advantage  in  beginning  at 
this  time  is  that  the  birds  can  easily  be  seen,  because 
there  is  no  foliage  to  conceal  them.  Later  in  the 
season,  when  the  leaves  have  developed,  it  is  much 
more  difficult  to  see  them. 

The  spring  is  the  most  interesting  season  to  study 
birds.  It  is  the  season  of  bird  song  and  of  nesting, 
and  birds  render  themselves  very  conspicuous  at 


RED-HEADED    WOODPECKER 


HOW  TO  KNOW  THE  BIRDS  55 

this  time.  Later,  when  home  duties  begin,  there  is 
less  singing  and  birds  are  more  wary  about  exposing 
themselves.  June,  when  the  nesting-season  is  at  its 
height,  is  also  an  interesting  month  for  bird-study. 
During  the  late  summer,  birds  are  moulting,  and  re- 
main quiet  and  concealed,  so  that  it  is  a  discouraging 
season  for  bird-study.  Then  during  the  fall  follows 
a  more  active  period  when  the  fall  migration  is  un- 
der way.  During  the  winter  there  is  opportunity  to 
study  at  close  hand  the  winter  birds  that  may  be 
attracted  by  food. 

The  best  time  of  the  day  to  study  birds  is  in  the 
early  morning  up  to  about  nine  o'clock,  as  this  is 
the  time  when  birds  are  most  active  and  do  most  of 
their  singing.  The  next  best  time  is  in  the  late  after- 
noon. 

How  to  study  birds.  In  order  that  one  may  be 
most  successful  in  finding  birds,  a  few  precautions 
need  to  be  observed.  Loud  noises  should  be  avoided, 
as  should  quick,  sudden  movements.  It  is  well 
sometimes  to  seat  one's  self  in  one  place  and  remain 
quiet  for  some  time,  to  find  the  birds  that  may  be 
seen  in  that  one  locality.  Birds  may  be  attracted  by 
making  a  sort  of  squeak,  which  is  made  by  kissing 
the  back  of  the  hand  vigorously.  This  will  often 
bring  out  birds  whose  presence  had  not  been  sus- 
pected. 

Every  season  of  the  year  has  something  new  in  the 
line  of  bird  activities,  so  that  there  is  a  constant 


56  BIRD  FRIENDS 

variety  of  interesting  things  to  attract  one's  atten- 
tion. 

What  to  study.  Beginning  in  the  early  spring- 
time and  continuing  till  the  last  of  May,  one  may 
keep  a  record  of  the  spring  migration.  In  its  sim- 
plest form  this  may  consist  of  two  columns  giving 
the  name  of  the  bird  and  the  date  when  first  seen. 
To  this  may  be  added  as  many  more  points  as  one 
wishes,  such  as  place  where  seen,  number,  etc. 
These  records  may  be  kept  in  the  following  tabular 
form :  — 


Name  of  bird 

Date  when 
first  seen 

Place  where 
seen 

Number  seen 

It  is  interesting  to  spend  all  of  a  day  or  a  part 
of  a  day  during  May  in  the  field,  to  see  how  many 
birds  one  can  find  in  a  day.  This  is  the  season  when 
one  can  find  the  greatest  number  in  the  northern 
United  States,  as  it  may  include  permanent  and 
summer  residents  and  transient  visitants. 

Songs.  Shortly  after  birds  arrive  in  the  spring, 
they  are  in  full  song,  and  this  bird  music  forms  one  of 
the  most  attractive  features  for  study.  Some  of  the 
things  that  may  be  noted  are  the  time  of  day  when 
the  song  is  given,  length  of  singing-season,  character 
of  song,  its  variety,  pitch,  quality,  location  of  bird 
when  given,  and  whether  given  on  the  wing.  Some 
brief  description  of  the  song  written  in  a  notebook 


HOW  TO  KNOW  THE  BIRDS  57 

will  help  fix  it  more  firmly  in  the  mind.  Any  of  the 
methods  described  in  Chapter  II  may  be  used,  or 
simply  a  description  in  words  may  be  given.  An- 
other interesting  study  is  to  begin  just  before  sun- 
rise some  morning  in  May,  and  note  the  order  in 
which  the  different  birds  begin  to  sing,  and  the  order 
in  which  they  leave  off  as  the  day  progresses.  Like- 
wise the  order  of  beginning  and  stopping  in  the  late 
afternoon. 

Nesting-habits.  The  nesting-season  offers  oppor- 
tunity for  the  closest  observation  of  birds.  Many 
things  may  be  learned  which  have  never  before  been 
recorded.  Some  things  that  may  be  observed  are 
the  location  of  the  nest,  materials  used  in  making  it, 
work  done  by  male  and  female,  length  of  time  re- 
quired to  build,  number  and  color  of  eggs,  time  of 
incubation,  number  of  times  young  are  fed  in  an 
hour,  kind  of  food  brought,  how  the  work  is  divided 
between  male  and  female,  time  young  remain  in 
nest,  care  of  young  after  leaving  nest. 

During  the  height  of  the  nesting-season,  about  the 
middle  of  June,  a  list  may  be  made  of  all  the  birds 
seen  for  a  week,  which  will  include  those  birds  that 
nest  in  a  locality,  as  by  this  time  the  transient  visit- 
ants have  departed. 

The  United  States  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey 
has  begun  to  have  annual  censuses  taken  by  volun- 
teer bird-students  throughout  the  United  States,  so 
that  some  definite  information  may  be  obtained  re- 


58  BIRD  FRIENDS 

garding  the  number  of  birds  and  the  need  for  their 
protection  and  increase.  Details  of  how  this  census 
is  to  be  made  may  be  obtained  by  writing  to  the 
Bureau  of  Biological  Survey,  Washington,  D.C. 

Winter  birds.  During  the  winter,  birds  may  be 
attracted  around  the  home  by  means  of  food 
placed  on  trees  and  shelves  and  even  on  the  window- 
sill,  and  thus  an  opportunity  offered  to  study  birds 
through  the  window  even  in  the  coldest  weather. 
Different  kinds  of  food  may  be  tried  to  see  which 
each  bird  likes  best  and  which  foods  birds  will  eat. 
The  habits  of  the  birds  in  approaching  the  food  and 
in  eating  it  are  interesting  to  watch. 

Christmas  census.  It  has  been  the  custom  of 
"  Bird-Lore  "  to  invite  its  readers  to  make  a  bird 
census  on  Christmas  Day  and  to  send  the  list  of 
birds  seen  to  "Bird-Lore."  These  lists  are  published 
in  the  next  issue  of  the  magazine.  Below  is  a  sam- 
ple record  taken  from  the  January-February  issue, 
1915:- 

Eagle  Bend,  Minn.  —  Dec.  24;  10  A.M.  to  4  P.M. 
Clear;  about  3  in.  of  snow;  no  wind;  temp.— 5°.  Bob- 
white,  12;  Ruffed  Grouse,  4;  Pileated  Woodpecker,  2; 
Hairy  Woodpecker,  4;  Downy  Woodpecker,  3;  Evening 
Grosbeak,  10;  White-breasted  Nuthatch,  2;  Black-capped 
Chickadee,  11.  Total,  8  species,  48  individuals. 

In  the  census  for  1914  the  greatest  number  of 
birds  was  reported  from  Santa  Barbara,  California; 
108  species,  7269  individuals;  the  smallest  number 


Location- 
Date 


-Hour- 


Weather 


-Wind- 


SIZE: 

Smaller  than  wren 

Between  wren  and  sparrow 

SEEN: 

Near  ground  or  High  up 

In  Heavy  woods 


Between  sparrow  and  robin 
Between  robin  and  crow 
Larger  than  crow 
Bushy  places         Swamp 
Orchard  Open  country 

Garden  Near  water 


Name. 


Genu 


-Species. 


COLORS: 

1  Black 
2  White 

6  Chestnut 
7  Yellow 

11  Gray 
12  Slate 

3  Blue 
4  Red 

8  Orange 
9  Green 

13  Rusty 
14  White  washed 

5  Brown 

10  Olive  green 

with  yellow 

REMARKS: 

(Such  as  wing  bars,  white  in  tail,  eye  ring,  shape  of  bill,  marks  on  head,  notes 
or  song,  characteristic  movements,  details  of  neat.) 


[On  the  outline  on  the  preceding  page  numbers  are 
to  be  placed  in  accordance  with  the  table  above  to 
show  the  kind  and  location  of  colors.] 


HOW  TO  KNOW  THE  BIRDS  59 

from  Buffalo,  New  York,  4  species,  8  individuals. 
In  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States  the  num- 
ber was  smaller  than  in  the  southern  part.  The  aver- 
age number  of  species  reported  from  the  northern 
sections  ranged  from  7  to  15. 

A  number  of  bird  notebooks  are  published  in 
which  one  may  record  his  observations,  for  the 
purpose  of  identification.  Opposite  is  a  sample  leaf 
from  a  book  sold  for  fifteen  cents  by  the  National 
Association  of  Audubon  Societies,  New  York  City. 

Bird  photography.  Another  means  of  studying 
birds  which  some  people  employ  with  much  pleas- 
ure is  to  photograph  them.  All  kinds  of  outfits  may 
be  used,  from  the  ordinary  focusing  camera  with  an 
ordinary  lens  up  to  the  most  expensive  reflex  camera 
with  the  best  kind  of  lens.  As  birds  are  small,  the 
camera  must  be  placed  near  in  order  to  get  an  image 
of  sufficient  size,  and  hence  the  camera  must  be 
provided  with  a  long  draw  of  bellows  and  a  long- 
focus  lens. 

In  order  that  the  birds  may  come  near  enough  to 
the  camera  so  that  a  satisfactory  picture  may  be 
secured,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  work  the  shutter 
from  a  distance.  One  of  the  simplest  methods  is  to 
use  a  spool  of  linen  thread.  The  thread  is  fastened 
to  the  shutter  and  then  this  may  be  worked  by  pull- 
ing the  thread  from  any  desired  distance.  Sometimes 
birds  will  become  so  tame  that  one  may  stand  by  the 
camera  and  take  pictures,  as  when  photographing 


60  BIRD  FRIENDS 

from  inside  the  window  birds  feeding  on  a  window- 
sill. 

The  two  best  seasons  for  photographing  birds  are 
the  spring  and  summer,  when  the  birds  are  nesting, 
and  the  winter,  when  they  come  to  eat  food  pro- 
vided for  them.  If  one  attracts  birds  around  his 
home,  he  will  find  many  opportunities  for  photo- 
graphing them.  The  birds  that  use  nesting-boxes 
become  tame  and  may  easily  be  photographed  after 
the  young  are  hatched,  as  the  parents  enter  and  leave 
the  box.  One  may  watch  the  birds  to  see  how  they 
approach  and  where  they  usually  alight,  and  then 
the  camera  may  be  focused  on  this  spot,  and  when 
the  bird  is  in  the  right  position,  the  thread  may  be 
pulled. 

Likewise,  the  winter  birds  become  very  tame, 
coming  to  the  window  shelf  for  food,  and  the  camera 
may  be  set  up  just  inside  the  window  and  the  picture 
taken  through  the  window-pane.  A  little  patience 
will  often  enable  one  to  secure  a  picture  of  a  bird 
feeding  from  the  hand.  During  one  winter  the  au- 
thor was  able  to  secure  pictures  of  the  nine  following 
species :  chickadee,  white-breasted  nuthatch,  downy 
woodpecker,  brown  creeper,  blue  jay,  hermit  thrush, 
myrtle  warbler,  junco,  and  song  sparrow.  Pictures 
of  all  except  the  junco  were  obtained  at  the  window- 
sill.  Pictures  of  the  chickadee  feeding  from  the  hand 
were  secured. 

Besides  these  pictures  of  birds  that  nest  in  boxes 


HOW  TO  KNOW  THE  BIRDS  61 

there  will  be  many  opportunities  of  photographing 
the  nests  and  eggs  of  other  birds  and  the  parents 
feeding  their  young. 

Many  people  are  now  using  the  camera  instead  of 
the  gun,  and  it  is  found  that  the  use  of  the  camera 
requires  much  more  skill  and  patience  than  the  use 
of  the  gun,  and  gives  one  more  pleasure  and  does  no 
harm  to  the  birds.  For  this  kind  of  hunting  there  is 
no  closed  season. 

As  a  matter  of  convenience  for  reference,  the  fol- 
lowing table  of  fifty  common  birds  is  given,  showing 
the  dates  of  migration  and  nesting  for  the  vicinity 
of  New  York  City  as  found  in  Chapman's  "Hand- 
book of  Birds."  These  dates  are  earlier  for  regions 
farther  south  and  later  for  those  farther  north:  —  j 

CHART  OF  FIFTY  COMMON  BIRDS 

(Latitude  of  New  York  City) 

PERMANENT  RESIDENTS 

Name  Date  of  nesting 

Bob-white May,  4th  week 

Chickadee May,  3d  week 

Crow April,  2d  week  ' 

Goldfinch June,  3d  week 

Blue  jay May,  2d  week 

White-breasted  nuthatch April,  3d  week 

Downy  woodpecker May,  3d  week 

WINTER  RESIDENTS 

Name  Date  of  arrival  Date  of  departure 

Brown  creeper Sept.  20-30 April    1-30 

Junco Sept.  20-30. April  10-May  10 

White-throated  sparrow Sept.  20-30 May    1-25 

Tree  sparrow Oct.  20-31 April    1-30 


BIRD  FRIENDS 


SUMMER  RESIDENTS 
(Arranged  in  the  order  of  their  arrival  in  spring) 


Name 
Song  sparrow 

Data 
Feb  It 

yf  arrit 

-Marc 
-Marc 
r-Marc 

i-Marc 
-Marc 
-Marc 
10-20 
10-20 
10-20 

20-31 
20-31 
1-10.. 

al          Date  of  nesting 

h  10.  .April,  4th  week 
h  10.  .May,  1st  week, 
h  10.  .April,  4th  week 

h  10.  .May,  3d  week, 
h  10..  April,  3d  week, 
h  10..  April,  2dweek. 
April  4th  week 

Date  of 
departure 
.  .  Nov.    1-30 
..Nov.    1-30 
..Nov.    1-30 

.  .Nov.    1-30 
..Nov.    1-30 
..Nov.    1-30 
..Oct.   20-30 
.  .  Nov.    1-30 
..Nov.    1-30 

..Nov.      -30 
.  .  Nov.      -30 
..Nov.      -30 
..Nov.      -30 
.  .Oct.       -10 
.  .Oct.       -10 
.  .Oct.    20-30 
..Sept.  20-30 
..Oct.     1-10 
..Oct.   10-20 
..Oct.   10-20 
..Oct.   10-20 
.  .Oct.     1-10 
..Oct.     1-10 
.  .Oct.    10-20 
.  .Sept.  20-30 
..Sept.  20-30 
.  .  Sept.  10-20 
..Oct.      1-10 
..Oct.     1-10 

.  .Sept.  20-30 
.  .Oct.      1-10 
..Oct.    10-20 
..Sept.  20-30 
..Sept.  10-20 

..Oct.   10-20 
..Oct.     1-10 
..Sept.  20-30 
..Sept.  20-30 
..Oct.  10-20 

Flicker  

Feb.  1£ 

Crow  blackbird.   . 

Feb.  Ifi 

Red-winged  black- 
bird                           Fob   1/i 

Robin 

Feb.  15 

Bluebird  

Feb.  15 

Phcebe  

March 

Meadowlark  

.  .  March 

May  3d  week 

Cowbird 

IVlarch 

Kingfisher 

M!arch 

(In  other  nests) 

Mourning  dove  .  . 
Vesper  sparrow  .  . 
Chipping  sparrow 
Barn  swallow.  .  .  . 

.  .March 
..April 
.  .April 
April  1 

....   April  4th  week 

]VIay,  2d  week 

1-10.. 

f)-20 

May,  2d  week 

May  2d  week 

Chimney  swift  .  .  . 

.  .  April  20-30 

IV^ay  4th  week 

Towhee  

..April  20-30. 

May  2d  week 

Purple  martin  .  .  . 
Oven-bird 

.  .April  20-30.. 
April  2H-30 

May,  4th  week  . 
May  3d  week 

House  wren  
Brown  thrasher  .  . 
Catbird  

..April  2 
..April  2 
April  2 

0-30.. 
0-30.. 

May,  3d  week.  . 
May,  3d  week 

0-30 

May  3d  week 

Wood  thrush  .... 

.  April  2 

0-30.. 
1-10.. 
1-10.  . 
-10.  . 

May,  3d  week  . 
May,  4th  week  . 
June,  1st  week  . 
....     May  2d  week 

Cuckoo  

..May    ] 

Nighthawk  

..May    - 

Hummingbird.  .  . 
Kingbird 

..May 

-10.  . 
-10.  . 

May,  4th  week. 
May,  4th  week 

Baltimore  oriole  . 
Bobolink  .      .    . 

..May 
.   May 

-10 

May  4th  week 

Indigo  bunting  .  .  . 
Rose-breasted  gro 
beak 

..May 

s- 
IV^ay 

-10.. 

-10.  . 
-10.  . 

May,  4th  week  . 

May,  3d  week  . 
June,  1st  week 

Scarlet  tanager  .  . 
Red-eyed  vireo  .  . 
Warbling  vireo  .  . 
Yellow  warbler  .  . 
Maryland  yellow 
throat 

..May 
..May 
..May 
..May 

M!ay 

-10 

May  4th  week 

-10.  . 
-10.  . 

May,  4th  week  . 
May,  3d  week 

-10 

May  4th  week 

Redstart 

May 

-10.. 
-10.. 
)-20.. 
f>-20 

May,  3d  week.  . 
May,  3d  week.  . 
June,  1st  week.  . 
..Mav.  4th  week. 

Veery  

May 

Wood  pewee  
Marsh  wren.  . 

..May  11 
..May  1 

CHAPTER  VII 

FRIENDS   AMONG   THE   BIRDS   AS   DESTROYERS 
OF   INSECT   PESTS 

THE  practical  value  of  birds  to  man,  whether 
helpful  or  harmful,  depends  chiefly  on  their  food 
habits.  Some  of  their  food  consists  of  things  injuri- 
ous to  man,  such  as  insect  pests,  weed  seeds,  and 
rodent  pests,  while  some  consists  of  things  valuable 
to  man,  such  as  fruit  and  grain:  so  that  the  exact 
economic  status  of  a  bird  is  determined  by  a  careful 
study  of  its  food  habits. 

The  United  States  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey. 
The  first  systematic  and  thorough  study  of  the  food 
habits  of  birds  began  in  1885,  when  the  National 
Government  established  a  section  of  economic  orni- 
thology whose  purpose  was  to  investigate  the  food 
habits,  distribution,  and  migration  of  North  Ameri- 
can birds  and  mammals  in  relation  to  agriculture, 
horticulture,  and  forestry.  This  was  later  given  the 
title  of  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey.  Its  work  upon 
the  economic  value  of  birds  has  been  along  three 
lines:  (1)  to  determine  as  accurately  as  possible  the 
food  of  birds  of  economic  importance;  (2)  to  act  as 
a  court  of  appeal  to  investigate  complaints  concern- 
ing depredations  of  birds  on  crops;  (3)  to  diffuse 


64  BIRD  FRIENDS 

the  results  of  its  work  and  to  educate  the  public  as  to 
the  value  of  birds. 

Since  its  formation,  the  Bureau  has  collected  a 
large  mass  of  facts  regarding  the  food  habits  of  over 
four  hundred  species  of  birds  and  has  published  the 
results  of  its  investigations  in  bulletins  printed  by 
the  Government,  some  given  away,  others  sold  at 
nominal  prices.  Some  conception  of  the  work  of  the 
Bureau  may  be  gained  by  looking  over  the  partial 
list  of  bulletins  given  on  pages  318-19.  This  work 
has  steadily  grown  in  importance  and  to-day  the 
Bureau  is  one  of  the  most  serviceable  divisions  of 
the  Department  of  Agriculture,  employing  eleven 
men  in  the  work  on  economic  ornithology. 

Methods  of  determining  food  of  birds.  Three 
methods  have  been  used  to  determine  the  food  hab- 
its of  birds:  (1)  field  observations  of  living  birds  to 
observe  the  kinds  of  foods  taken  and  the  amounts; 
(2)  study  of  birds  kept  in  captivity;  (3)  examina- 
tion of  the  contents  of  birds'  stomachs  after  the  birds 
have  been  killed. 

Field  observations.  In  order  to  determine  a  bird's 
food  from  a  study  of  the  living  bird,  it  is  necessary 
to  get  close  to  the  bird  or  use  a  pair  of  field-glasses, 
and  even  then  it  is  difficult  to  determine  exactly  the 
specific  nature  of  the  food.  This  method  can  best  be 
used  in  studying  the  food  of  nestlings.  The  parents 
bring  food  frequently  to  the  same  spot  and  one  is 
able  to  approach  close  to  the  nest.  Some  observers 


DESTROYERS  OF  INSECT  PESTS         65 

place  a  small  tent  within  arm's  length  of  the  nest 
and  watch  the  bird  from  within  the  tent.  The  birds 
usually  become  accustomed  to  the  presence  of  the 
tent  and  come  and  go  as  usual.  The  number  of  times 
that  the  young  are  fed  may  thus  be  learned.  The 
young  may  be  weighed  each  day,  and  thus  some  idea 
obtained  of  the  increase  in  weight  and  of  the  amount 
of  food  eaten. 

Birds  in  captivity.  When  birds  are  kept  in  captiv- 
ity the  exact  amount  and  kinds  of  food  eaten  may  be 
determined.  The  kinds  eaten,  under  those  condi- 
tions, however,  are  not  a  safe  guide  for  determining 
the  kinds  eaten  in  nature,  as  doubtless,  when  hun- 
gry, birds  will  eat  many  things  which  they  do  not 
normally  eat  when  at  liberty.  More  accurate  esti- 
mates may  be  made  of  the  amount  of  food  eaten, 
as  the  bird  would  doubtless  require  more  food  when 
free  than  when  in  captivity,  so  that  the  amount 
eaten  in  captivity  would  be  a  minimum. 

Bob-white.  The  food  habits  of  the  bob-white 
have  been  studied  with  birds  kept  in  captivity. 
Each  of  the  following  is  a  single  day's  rations:  1350 
flies,  5000  aphids,  1532  insects,  600  seeds  of  burdock, 
12,000  seeds  of  pigweed,  15,000  seeds  of  lamb's- 
quarters.  The  bob- white  was  found  to  eat  in  cap' 
tivity  61  kinds  of  weed  seeds,  besides  the  68  kinds 
previously  recorded,  making  a  total  of  129  species. 
It  has  also  been  found  to  eat  135  different  kinds  of 
insects.  As  a  result  of  these  studies  it  is  estimated 


66  BIRD  FRIENDS 

that  a  single  bob-white  will  eat  in  a  year  an  average 
of  75,000  insects  and  5,000,000  weed  seeds,  which 
would  make  about  7j  pounds  of  insects  and  10 
pounds  of  weed  seeds. 

Examination  of  stomachs.  But  the  most  impor- 
tant method  of  determining  the  food  of  birds  is 
by  examination  of  the  contents  of  birds'  stomachs. 
This  is  the  final  court  of  appeal,  and  is  the  method 
used  chiefly  by  the  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey. 
Many  specimens  of  a  certain  bird  are  collected  dur- 
ing different  months  from  different  sections  of  the 
country  and  sent  to  Washington,  where  the  stomachs 
are  examined.  There  usually  remain  in  the  stomach 
some  of  the  harder  portions  of  the  insects  which  have 
not  been  changed,  such  as  mandibles,  scales  of 
moths,  wing-covers,  and  pieces  of  legs.  From  an 
examination  of  these  with  microscopes,  experts  are 
able  to  determine  the  insects  from  which  they  have 
come.  Among  the  vegetable  foods,  differences  in  the 
epidermis  of  many  fruits  and  in  the  starch  grains  of 
common  cereals  can  be  detected,  and  weed  seeds  can 
be  identified.  Food  of  similar  kinds  is  arranged  in 
piles  and  the  percentage  of  the  various  kinds  of  food 
computed.  As  an  illustration  of  the  method  pur- 
sued, we  may  take  results  obtained  from  the  study 
of  the  robin.  Twelve  hundred  and  thirty-six  stom- 
achs, collected  from  forty-two  States,  the  District 
of  Columbia,  and  three  Canadian  Provinces,  and 
representing  every  month  in  the  year,  were  exam- 


A  USEFUL   CITIZEN 
House  Wren 


DIAGRAM   SHOWING   PROPORTIONS   OF   THE   FOOD 

OF    ADULT    HOUSE    WREN 
i,  cutworm ;  2, spider ;  3,  stink-bug  ;  4,  May-fly;  5,  weevil ;  6,  grasshopper 


DESTROYERS  OF  INSECT  PESTS          67 

ined.  The  food  consisted  of  42.4  per  cent  animal 
food  and  57.6  per  cent  vegetable  food,  divided  as 
follows  :  — 

Animal  food  Vegetable  food 

Per  cent  Per  cent 

Beetles  ........  17  Wild  fruit  ..........  42 

Caterpillars  ....  9  Cultivated  fruit  .....  8 

Grasshoppers  .  .  5  Miscellaneous  .......  7£ 

Flies  ..........  3  Total  ..........  — 

Bees  and  ants.  .  3  57$ 

Bugs  ..........  2 

Miscellaneous  .  .  3J 

Total  .....       42£ 

The  annual  food  included  223  kinds  of  insects, 
and  the  vegetable  food  65  kinds  of  wild  and  10  kinds 
of  cultivated  fruit.  This  food  may  be  classified  ac- 
cording to  its  value  to  man  in  the  following  groups: 

To  the  robin's  credit       To  the  robin's  discredit  Neutral  food 

Per  cent  Per  cent  Per  cent 


Caterpillars.  .  . 
May  beetles.  . 
Grasshoppers  . 

9 
5.5 
5 

Cultivated  fruit  .  . 
Beneficial  beetles  . 
Spiders 

8 
5 
1 

Wild  fruit... 
Miscellaneous 

42 
10 

Weevils 

4 

Bees 

1 

March  flies  .  .  . 
Ants  

3 
1.5 

Other  insects.  . 

5 

Total....    33  15  52 

Approximately  one  seventh  of  the  robin's  food  is 
composed  of  materials  beneficial  to  man,  one  third 
is  composed  of  insects  harmful  to  man,  and  about 
one  half  is  composed  of  neutral  elements. 

So  far  more  than  sixty  thousand  stomachs,  com- 
prising over  four  hundred  species  of  birds  have  been 
examined  by  the  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey. 


68  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Still  a  fourth  method  is  the  combination  of  field 
and  laboratory  work.  The  birds  are  studied  in  the 
field  in  those  localities  where  birds  are  collected  for 
stomach  examinations.  Facts  are  gathered  relative 
to  the  available  food-supply  for  birds;  these,  in  con- 
nection with  the  examination  of  the  stomach,  show 
what  a  bird  will  eat,  what  it  prefers,  and  what  it 
refuses. 

Good  done  by  birds.  These  studies  of  the  food  of 
birds  show  that  they  help  man  in  three  ways:  (1)  by 
eating  injurious  insects;  (2)  by  eating  weed  seeds; 
and  (3)  by  eating  mice  and  other  rodents.  Another 
way  of  minor  importance  in  which  the  birds  are  use- 
ful is  in  acting  as  scavengers. 

Harm  done  by  insects.  Among  insects  are  found 
some  of  man's  most  common  foes.  In  almost  every 
walk  of  life,  man  has  to  contend  with  insects.  The 
mosquito  and  fly  carry  diseases  and  thus  cause 
thousands  of  cases  of  sickness  and  death  every  year. 
The  gardener,  the  fruit-grower,  and  the  farmer  are 
constantly  fighting  the  insects  that  prey  upon  their 
crops.  In  the  vegetable  garden,  the  cabbage-worm 
attacks  the  cabbage;  the  cucumber-beetle,  the  vine 
crops;  the  potato-beetle,  the  potatoes.  In  the  fruit- 
garden,  the  codling  moth  damages  the  apple;  the 
currant- worm,  the  currant;  the  white  grub,  the 
strawberry.  On  the  farm  the  army-worm  destroys 
the  wheat,  and  the  root-aphis  attacks  the  corn.  The 
elm-beetle  and  tussock-moth  attack  shade-trees, 


DESTROYERS  OF  INSECT  PESTS 


69 


and  the  forest  tent-caterpillar  destroys  forest-trees. 
Nearly  all  crops  have  a  great  variety  of  different 
kinds  of  insects  that  may  prey  upon  them.  One 
hundred  and  seventy-six  kinds  have  been  found 
preying  on  the  apple  tree  alone  and  four  hundred 
kinds  on  the  oak. 

The  following  table  prepared  by  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Entomology  gives  an  estimate  of 
the  annual  loss  caused  by  insects  in  the  United 
States:  — 


Product 

Value 

Percentage 
of  loss 

Value  — 
amount  of 
loss 

Cereals  

$2,000,000,000 

10 

$200,000,000 

Hay 

530,000,000 

10 

53,000,000 

Cotton 

600,000,000 

10 

60,000,000 

Tobacco 

53,000,000 

10 

5,300,000 

Truck  crops  
Sugar  

265,000,000 
50,000,000 

20 
10 

53,000,000 
5,000,000 

Fruits  

135,000,000 

20 

27,000,000 

Farm  forests  

110,000,000 

10 

11,000,000 

Miscellaneous  crops 
Animal  products  

58,000,000 
1,750,000,000 

10 
10 

5,800,000 
175,000,000 

Total        

$5,551,000,000 

$595  100  000 

Natural  forests  and 
forest  products 
Products  in  storage.  . 

•• 

100,000,000 
100,000,000 

Grand  total.... 

•- 

$795,100,000  • 

Besides  the  tremendous  loss  caused  directly  by 
the  insects  in  destroying  the  crops,  man  spends  an- 
nually millions  of  dollars  for  spraying  outfits  and 


?0  BIRD  FRIENDS 

other  means  of  controlling  these  pests.  If  to  this 
be  added  the  loss  in  sickness  and  death  caused  by 
mosquitoes  and  flies,  the  total  annual  toll  that  in- 
sects collect  from  man  in  the  United  States  is  about 
one  billion  dollars. 

Power  of  reproduction  of  insects.  Insects  exist  in 
enormous  numbers  and  have  a  most  remarkable 
power  of  increase.  It  is  estimated  that  if  the  hop- 
vine  aphis  should  multiply  unchecked  and  each  in- 
sect should  live  and  find  enough  food,  at  the  end  of 
one  season  the  number  of  the  last  brood  would  be 
10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.  Dr.  Hodge  has  es- 
timated for  the  mosquito  that  if  each  insect  should 
live,  and  the  female  lay  the  average  number  of  eggs, 
the  number  of  descendants  of  a  single  mosquito  at 
the  end  of  six  months  would  be  represented  by  the 
figure  2,  followed  by  39  ciphers.  Of  course  this  can 
never  happen,  on  account  of  abundance  of  its  ene- 
mies and  lack  of  food. 

Amount  of  food  eaten  by  insects.  Another  fact 
that  makes  insects  so  destructive  is  the  enormous 
amount  of  food  they  devour  in  a  short  time.  Many 
caterpillars  eat  each  day  twice  their  own  weight  of 
leaves.  Sometimes  a  single  day's  work  of  an  army 
of  insects  may  be  enough  to  destroy  a  crop. 

Nature's  check  on  insects.  The  wonderful  power 
of  reproduction  possessed  by  insects  and  the  enor- 
mous amounts  of  food  eaten  suggest  how  important 
it  is  that  there  should  be  checks  constantly  at  work 


DESTROYERS  OF  INSECT  PESTS          71 

to  keep  down  their  numbers.  Such  a  constant  check 
are  the  birds,  which  constitute  one  of  Nature's  most 
effective  means  of  controlling  insects  and  keeping  a 
proper  balance.  Parasitic  and  predaceous  insects 
are  another  means  of  keeping  the  balance.  The 
birds  work  from  sunrise  till  sunset  devouring  in- 
sects during  the  warmer  months  of  the  year  when 
insects  are  abundant,  and  some  birds  during  the 
winter  feed  on  insects'  eggs  and  on  the  hibernating 
insects. 

Man's  disturbance  of  Nature's  balance.  Nature 
when  left  to  herself  has  balanced  these  forces  evenly, 
so  that  the  insects  are  kept  by  birds  and  other 
natural  checks  from  becoming  excessively  numer- 
ous and  destructive.  But  man  has  upset  Nature's 
balance  in  many  ways.  First,  new  crops  have  been 
introduced;  second,  forests  have  been  cleared  and 
crops  raised  on  larger  areas,  thus  furnishing  more 
food  for  insects  and  allowing  them  to  increase; 
third,  many  insects  have  unwittingly  been  intro- 
duced into  the  United  States  from  other  countries; 
and  fourth,  most  strange  and  unbelievable  of  all, 
man  has  wantonly  destroyed  the  birds,  Nature's 
check  on  the  increase  of  injurious  insects. 

Service  performed  by  the  birds.  The  great  service 
that  birds  and  other  insect-enemies  are  now  render- 
ing to  man  is  in  destroying  enough  insects  so  that  the 
remainder  will  not  do  excessive  and  uncontrollable 
damage.  The  birds  can  never  utterly  destroy  any 


72  BIRD  FRIENDS 

kind  of  insect,  and  this  might  prove  undesirable 
even  if  possible,  but  they  help  to  keep  them  in  check 
to  such  an  extent  that  man  is  able  to  cope  with  those 
that  are  left  and  thus  raise  his  crops  successfully. 
If  man  were  suddenly  deprived  of  the  services  of  the 
birds,  this  would  allow  insects  to  increase  to  such  an 
extent  that  it  would  render  it  many  times  more 
difficult  to  raise  crops;  and  some  bird-students 
say  that  without  the  aid  of  birds  it  would  not  be 
possible  to  raise  crops  at  all  on  account  of  the  enor- 
mous number  of  insects  that  would  prey  upon 
them. 

How  serious  the  results  would  be  if  we  were  de- 
prived of  the  service  of  the  birds,  it  is  difficult  to  say 
exactly,  but  enough  is  known  regarding  the  balance 
that  Nature  has  established  between  birds  and  in- 
sects, so  that  we  are  sure  that  the  birds  are  among 
man's  greatest  friends  in  his  warfare  on  injurious 
insects. 

Amount  of  food  eaten  by  birds.  One  thing  about 
birds  that  makes  them  such  effective  checks  on  in- 
sects is  the  enormous  amount  of  food  they  require. 
The  temperature  of  their  blood  is  between  102  and 
112  degrees,  from  4  to  14  degrees  higher  than  that  in 
man,  and  large  amounts  of  food  must  be  eaten  to 
maintain  this  high  temperature.  The  blood  courses 
through  the  vessels  with  great  rapidity,  driven  by 
the  heart,  which  beats  one  hundred  and  twenty 
tunes  a  minute  when  the  bird  is  at  rest,  and  faster 


DESTROYERS  OF  INSECT  PESTS         73 

when  the  bird  is  in  motion.  And  the  digestive  sys- 
tem is  so  constructed  that  it  digests  very  rapidly  the 
bird's  food,  which  is  then  taken  by  the  blood  to  the 
various  parts  of  the  body,  where  its  oxidation  main- 
tains the  high  temperature  of  the  body.  Probably 
the  whole  process  of  digestion  and  assimilation  of 
food  may  take  place  in  an  hour  and  a  hah*,  so  that 
during  the  day  the  bird  may  eat  enough  food  to  fill 
its  stomach  ten  or  twelve  times.  The  study  of  birds 
in  the  field  and  the  examination  of  the  contents  of 
birds'  stomachs  show  that  a  bird  devours  enormous 
quantities  of  food. 

Records  of  field  observations  of  birds  are  con- 
densed in  the  following  table.  These  are  taken  from 
the  reports  of  Edward  H.  Forbush:  — 


Name  of  bird 

Number  of  insects 
eaten  per  minute 

Kind  of  insect 

Redstart  

2 

Brown-tail  larvae 

Nashville  warbler  

3 

Tent-caterpillars 

Chickadee  

4 

Brown-tail  larvae 

Red-eyed  vireo 

5 

Brown-tail  larvae 

Robin 

7 

Brown-tail  larvae 

Yellow  warbler      .    . 

9 

Caterpillars  of  gypsy  moth 

Cuckoo        

14 

Canker-worms 

Scarlet  tanager  

35 

Caterpillars  of  gypsy  moth 

Maryland  yellow-throat 

89 

Plant-lice 

A  few  examples  of  the  number  of  insects  found  in 
the  stomach  of  a  single  bird  are  given  below  in  the 
table.  These  figures  are  taken  from  the  reports  of 
the  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey:  — 


74 


BIRD  FRIENDS 


Name  of  bird 

Number  of  insects 

Kind  of  insect 

Rose-breasted  grosbeak 

Downy  woodpecker.  .  .  . 
Red-  winged  blackbird.  . 
Crow  blackbird    .    . 

14 

18 
28 
30 

Potato-beetles  (adult  and 
larvae) 
Larvae  of  codling  moth 
Cutworms 
Grasshoppers 

Hairy  woodpecker  
Cuckoo  

100 
250 

Wood-boring  grubs 
Tent-caterpillars 

Robin 

270 

Larvae  of  M.arch-flies 

Franklin  gull 

340 

Grasshoppers 

Flicker  

5000 

Ants 

The  following  table  showing  the  number  of  differ- 
ent kinds  of  insects  eaten  by  various  birds  is  based 
on  the  reports  of  the  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey:  — 

Name  of  bird  Number  of  kinds 

of  insects  eaten 

Hairy  woodpecker 21 

Downy  woodpecker 43 

Horned  lark 60 

Crow  blackbird 63 

Cuckoo 65 

Rose-breasted  grosbeak 67 

Red-headed  woodpecker 75 

Least  flycatcher 75 

Cardinal 81 

Crested  flycatcher 85 

Flicker 89 

Phrebe 121 

Wood  pewee 131 

Bob-white 135 

Bluebird 166 

Robin 223 

Kingbird 229 

Nighthawk 600 

The  number  of  birds  known  to  feed  upon  certain 
injurious  insects  is  given  in  the  table  below.  This, 


DOWNY    WOODPECKER 


DESTROYERS  OF  INSECT  PESTS          75 

also,  is  based  on  the  reports  of  the  Bureau  of  Bio- 
logical Survey : — 

Injurious  insect  Number  of  species  of 

birds  feeding  on  it 

Plum  curculio 7 

Grain  aphids 9 

Potato-beetle 26 

Codling  moth 36 

Birch  plant-lice 38 

Brown-tail  moth 39 

Alfalfa  weevil 45 

Gypsy  moth 46 

Scale  insects 57 

Boll  weevil 66 

Below  are  given  some  estimates  that  have  been 
made  of  the  number  of  insects  destroyed  by  birds :  — 

Professor  E.  D.  Sanderson  estimates  that  the 
chickadees  in  the  State  of  Michigan  destroy  annu- 
ally about  8,000,000,000  insects. 

In  the  States  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  it  is 
estimated  that  the  bob-white  alone  eats  340  tons  of 
insects  from  June  1  to  August  1. 

Mr.  Chester  A.  Reed  estimated  that  in  the  State 
of  Massachusetts  the  birds  devour  21,000  bushels 
of  insects  each  day  during  the  summer  season. 

Mr.  Bruner  gives  the  following  estimate  of  the 
number  of  insects  destroyed  in  the  State  of  Ne- 
braska: - 

Allowing  25  insects  per  day  as  an  average  diet  for  each 
individual  bird,  and  estimating  that  we  have  about  one 
and  one  half  birds  to  the  acre,  or  in  round  numbers 
75,000,000  birds  in  Nebraska,  there  would  be  required 
1,875,000,000  insects  for  each  day's  rations.  Again,  es- 


76  BIRD  FRIENDS 

timating  the  number  of  insects  required  to  fill  a  bushel 
at  120,000,  it  would  take  15,625  bushels  of  insects  to  feed 
our  birds  for  a  single  day,  or  937,500  bushels  for  60  days, 
or  2,343,750  bushels  for  150  days. 

Another  Nebraska  naturalist  has  estimated  that 
the  birds  of  that  State  eat  170  carloads  of  insects 
per  day. 

It  has  been  calculated  that  the  birds  of  New  York 
State  destroy  more  than  3,000,000  bushels  of  noxious 
insects  each  season. 

Value  of  nestling  birds.  Special  attention  may  be 
called  to  the  great  service  performed  by  birds  when 
feeding  their  young.  As  explained  in  a  previous 
chapter,  nestlings  require  large  amounts  of  food, 
being  fed  every  few  minutes  from  sunrise  to  sunset. 
This  destruction  of  insects  comes  at  a  most  oppor- 
tune time,  when  the  insects  are  present  in  great 
numbers  and  before  the  parasitic  insects  can  be  de- 
pended upon  to  reduce  the  pests.  The  chief  food  of 
the  nestlings  is  insects.  Even  when  the  adults  feed 
also  on  seeds,  the  young  at  first  are  fed  largely  on 
insects.  The  most  common  kinds  of  food  of  nestlings 
are  caterpillars,  grasshoppers,  and  spiders.  A  sug- 
gestive estimate  of  the  money  value  of  nestlings  has 
been  made  in  a  government  publication,  from  which 
the  following  is  taken:  — 

During  the  outbreak  of  Rocky  Mountain  locusts  in 
Nebraska,  in  1874-77,  Professor  Samuel  Aughey  saw  a 
long-billed  marsh  wren  carry  30  locusts  to  her  young  in  an 


DESTROYERS  OF  INSECT  PESTS          77 

hour.  At  this  rate,  for  seven  hours  a  day,  a  brood  would 
consume  210  locusts  per  day,  and  the  passerine  birds  of 
the  eastern  half  of  Nebraska,  allowing  only  20  broods  to 
the  square  mile,  would  destroy  daily  162,771,000  of  the 
pests.  The  average  locust  weighs  about  15  grains,  and  is 
capable  each  day  of  consuming  its  own  weight  of  standing 
forage  crops,  corn  and  wheat.  The  locusts  eaten  by  the 
nestlings  would  therefore  be  able  to  destroy  in  one  day 
174.397  tons  of  crops,  which  at  $10  per  ton  would  be 
worth  $1743.97.  This  case  may  serve  as  an  illustration 
of  the  vast  good  that  is  done  every  year  by  the  destruction 
of  insect  pests  fed  to  nestling  birds. 

Number  of  insects  destroyed  by  birds  in  the 
eastern  United  States.  Birds  feed  their  young,  on 
an  average,  about  two  hundred  insects  a  day.  If  we 
take  fifteen  days  as  the  average  time  that  young 
birds  remain  in  the  nest,  the  young  during  this  time 
would  devour  about  three  thousand  insects.  A 
recent  bird-census  of  the  United  States,  made  by  the 
Bureau  of  Biological  Survey,  showed  that  there  was 
an  average  of  one  pair  of  birds  per  acre  on  the  farms 
of  the  eastern  United  States.  East  of  the  Mississippi 
River  there  are  about  375,000,000  acres  of  farmland 
supporting  an  equal  number  of  pairs  of  birds.  These 
birds  in  rearing  one  brood  of  young  would  destroy 
about  1,100,000,000,000  insects.  This  is  the  amount 
for  only  two  weeks  eaten  by  the  young  birds  alone 
while  in  the  nest.  To  get  some  conception  of  the 
total  amount  of  food  eaten  by  all  birds,  to  this  must 
be  added  the  insects  eaten  by  the  second  and  third 
broods  which  some  species  raise,  those  eaten  by  the 


78  BIRD  FRIENDS 

adult  birds,  and  those  eaten  by  the  young  birds  after 
leaving  the  nest.  The  amount  eaten  by  the  young 
after  leaving  the  nest  and  by  the  adults  in  a  month 
would  doubtless  equal  the  amount  required  to  feed 
the  young  for  a  half -month  in  the  nest.  This  would 
make  a  monthly  total  of  about  2,000,000,000,000 
insects  destroyed  by  birds  on  the  farms  of  the  east- 
ern United  States,  or  for  the  summer  season  about 
10,000,000,000,000  insects. 

If  these  insects  averaged  an  inch  in  length  and 
were  placed  end  to  end,  they  would  make  a  proces- 
sion 160,000,000  miles  long,  which,  if  it  were  to 
travel  at  the  rate  of  a  mile  a  minute,  would  require 
three  hundred  years  to  pass  any  given  point.  This 
would  reach  to  the  sun  and  almost  back  again;  it 
would  reach  the  moon  and  return  three  hundred 
times;  it  would  encircle  the  earth  sixty-four  hundred 
times.  If  the  insects  were  placed  side  by  side  one 
inch  apart  they  would  make  a  band  fifty  feet  wide 
extending  to  the  moon,  and  would  form  a  belt  five 
hundred  feet  wide  extending  all  the  way  around  the 
earth.  These  insects,  if  placed  an  inch  apart  each 
way  would  form  a  sheet  that  would  completely  cover 
the  State  of  Delaware. 

Control  of  outbreaks  of  insects.  One  feature  of 
birds  that  makes  them  such  a  successful  check  upon 
insects  is  their  power  of  flight.  Wherever  insects  are 
found  in  unusually  large  numbers,  there  birds 
quickly  gather  to  prey  upon  them.  When  the  Mor- 


DESTROYERS  OF  INSECT  PESTS^         79 

mons  first  settled  in  Utah,  their  crops  were  attacked 
by  the  crickets  and  nearly  destroyed,  until  the  gulls 
came  in  large  numbers  and  preyed  upon  the  crickets 
and  saved  the  remainder  of  the  crops.  In  commem- 
oration of  this,  a  monument  to  the  gulls  has  recently 
been  erected  in  Salt  Lake  City. 

Outbreaks  of  locusts  in  the  Middle  West  have  been 
controlled  by  birds.  A  serious  outbreak  of  the  forest 
tent-caterpillar  occurred  in  New  York  and  New  Eng- 
land in  1897-98,  but  was  finally  brought  under  con- 
trol by  the  action  of  the  birds.  An  outbreak  of  the 
canker-worm  occurred  in  an  apple  orchard  in  Illi- 
nois. A  study  of  the  birds  found  here  showed  that 
twenty-six  kinds  of  birds  were  feeding  on  these 
canker-worms,  which  formed  thirty-five  per  cent  of 
the  birds'  food.  There  are  many  other  records  of 
small  local  outbreaks  which  have  been  controlled  by 
the  birds.  But  yet  the  greatest  service  that  the  birds 
render  is  in  keeping  the  insects  down  to  such  a  point 
that  outbreaks  do  not  occur. 

Division  of  labor.  The  division  of  labor  in  those 
places  where  insects  are  found  is  well  apportioned 
among  the  birds.  Some  birds,  like  the  sparrows,  feed 
upon  the  insects  found  on  the  ground;  the  wood- 
peckers spear  those  in  the  bark  and  wood  of  trees; 
warblers  and  vireos  glean  the  small  insects  found  on 
the  leaves,  while  the  larger  birds,  like  the  cuckoos, 
feed  upon  the  larger  insects  found  on  the  foliage;  the 
swallows  prey  upon  the  insects  in  the  air. 


80  BIRD  FRIENDS 

"  Birds  of  a  Maryland  Farm."  The  figures  so  far 
given  regarding  the  food  habits  of  birds  have  been 
based  largely  on  the  averages  for  many  birds  col- 
lected from  all  parts  of  the  country.  But  in  some 
cases,  in  order  to  determine  the  value  of  birds  in  a 
particular  locality,  certain  local  facts  regarding  the 
crops  raised  and  the  insects  present  must  be  ascer- 
tained in  order  to  decide  definitely  the  economic 
status  of  the  birds  found  there.  Dr.  Judd,  of  the 
Bureau  of  Biological  Survey,  made  a  careful  study  of 
a  single  farm  of  about  two  hundred  and  thirty  acres 
in  Maryland,  in  order  to  ascertain  which  birds  were 
valuable  and  which  were  injurious  on  this  particular 
farm.  The  farm  was  visited  frequently  during  every 
month  in  the  year  for  a  period  of  seven  years.  A 
list  of  the  available  food-supply  was  made,  consisting 
of  insects,  seeds,  and  fruit;  the  crops  grown  were 
noted,  and  the  insects  preying  upon  them.  The  birds 
were  studied  with  reference  to  the  kinds  found,  the 
abundance  of  each  kind,  their  distribution,  and  es- 
pecially with  reference  to  their  food  habits.  The 
birds  were  first  studied  in  the  field  to  ascertain  on 
what  they  were  feeding,  and  a  few  birds  were  shot 
and  the  contents  of  their  stomachs  examined.  This 
study  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  ever  carried  on 
along  this  line,  and  the  results  have  been  published 
in  a  bulletin  entitled  "Birds  of  a  Maryland  Farm." 

The  results  found  here  so  nearly  parallel  the  gen- 
eral conclusions  drawn  from  a  study  of  birds  through- 


DESTROYERS  OF  INSECT  PESTS         81 

out  the  whole  country,  that  a  brief  summary  may  be 
given.  During  this  period  163  species  of  birds  were 
observed.  The  stomachs  of  298  birds  were  collected 
and  examined.  Considering  the  food  of  all  the  birds 
collectively,  exclusive  of  the  English  sparrow,  it  was 
found  that  beneficial  insects  formed  4  per  cent  of  the 
food,  while  injurious  insects  formed  27  per  cent;  grain 
formed  li  per  cent,  while  weed  seeds  formed  18  per 
cent.  This  food  may  be  grouped  as  follows :  - 

Food  beneficial  to  man  Food  injurious  to  man 

Per  cent  Per  cent 

Beneficial  insects. . .  4  Injurious  insects 27 

Grain li  Weed  seeds 18 

Total 51  Total 45 

The  injurious  food  is  thus  seen  to  equal  in  amount 
nine  times  the  beneficial  food;  or,  in  other  words,  the 
birds  did  nine  times  as  much  good  as  harm.  A 
small  amount  of  cultivated  fruit  was  eaten,  but  the 
exact  per  cent  was  not  given  in  the  bulletin. 

Birds  and  human  health.  It  is  now  well  known 
that  some  insects  carry  diseases  and  thus  are  the  in- 
direct causes  of  sickness  and  death.  The  house-fly 
and  mosquito  are  the  two  most  common  and  deadly 
insects  in  this  way.  The  house-fly  carries  typhoid 
fever,  tuberculosis,  children's  diseases  of  the  alimen- 
tary canal,  and  many  other  diseases.  Mosquitoes 
carry  malaria  and  yellow  fever,  and  are  the  only 
means  known  by  which  these  diseases  are  carried 
from  one  person  to  another.  And  even  in  the  north- 


82  BIRD  FRIENDS 

ern  sections  of  the  country  where  these  diseases  are 
not  found,  mosquitoes  are  a  great  pest  and  prevent 
one  from  enjoying  outdoors  at  the  best  time  of  the 
year.  The  food  habits  of  birds  may  be  studied  with 
special  interest  in  this  connection  to  see  to  what  ex- 
tent they  feed  on  flies  and  mosquitoes. 

The  reports  of  the  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey 
show  that  there  are  a  number  of  birds  known  to  eat 
these  insects.  Nine  species  of  shore-birds  are  known 
to  feed  on  the  wigglers  of  mosquitoes.  In  a  killdeer's 
stomach,  hundreds  of  larvae  of  the  salt-marsh  mos- 
quito have  been  found.  Fifty-three  per  cent  of  the 
food  of  twenty-eight  northern  phalaropes  from  one 
locality  consisted  of  mosquito  larvae. 

The  following  land-birds  are  known  to  feed  on  the 
adult  mosquito:  nighthawk,  purple  martin,  yellow- 
throated  vireo,  whip-poor-will,  chimney  swift,  wood 
pewee,  phcebe,  kingbird,  bank  swallow,  cliff  swallow, 
tree  swallow,  barn  swallow,  violet-green  swallow, 
wren-tit,  and  summer  warbler.  Five  hundred  mos- 
quitoes are  said  to  have  been  found  in  the  stomach 
of  a  single  nighthawk.  Among  the  species  eaten  by 
this  bird  is  the  kind  that  carries  malaria,  so  that, 
as  we  watch  a  nighthawk  soaring  around  at  twilight, 
we  may  believe  it  quite  possible  that  it  has  been  the 
means  of  saving  some  human  life  by  destroying 
malaria-laden  mosquitoes  which  might  otherwise 
have  bitten  and  infected  a  human  being,  thus  caus- 
ing sickness  or  death. 


DESTROYERS  OF  INSECT  PESTS          83 

A  bob-white  kept  in  captivity  ate  568  mosquitoes 
in  two  hours. 

The  following  birds  have  been  known  to  feed  on 
house-flies:  wood  pewee,  phcebe,  yellow- throated 
vireo,  martin,  bob-white,  and  horned  lark. 

A  bob-white  kept  in  captivity  ate  1350  flies  in  one 
day. 

Mr.  E.  H.  Baynes,  in  his  "Wild  Bird  Guests," 
writes :  — 

The  pair  of  phcebes  on  our  piazza,  with  two  pairs  of  tree 
swallows  which  nest  in  boxes  in  the  garden,  and  a  pair  of 
barn  swallows  in  the  barn,  keep  our  house  practically  free 
from  flies  and  mosquitoes  all  summer  long. 


CHAPTER  VIH 

FRIENDS   AMONG   THE   BIRDS   AS   DESTROYERS 
OF   WEED   SEEDS 

Harm  done  by  weeds.  Weeds  constitute  one  of 
the  greatest  enemies  against  which  the  farmer  or 
gardener  must  contend.  During  the  growing  season 
he  must  wage  a  constant  warfare  against  them. 
Weeds  may  be  injurious  in  the  following  ways:  (1) 
Weeds  interfere  with  the  growth  of  crops  by  depriv- 
ing them  of  plant-food,  moisture,  and  sunlight  and 
thus  reduce  the  yield.  (2)  Another  loss  results  from 
the  mixture  of  weed  seeds  with  the  seeds  of  farm 
crops.  It  has  been  estimated  that  in  the  State  of 
Minnesota  alone  the  damage  due  to  weed  seeds 
amounts  yearly  to  two  and  a  half  million  dollars. 
(3)  Weeds  interfere  with  the  harvesting  and  curing 
of  crops.  (4)  Some  weeds  harbor  insect  pests  and 
fungus  diseases,  which  may  injure  crops  growing  near. 
(5)  Some  weeds  are  poisonous  either  to  man  or  to  live- 
stock. A  recent  bulletin  published  by  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  estimated  that  weeds  cost  the  Amer- 
ican farmer  three  hundred  million  dollars  every  year. 

The  seed  period  of  the  weeds  is  one  of  the  most 
vital  at  which  they  may  be  attacked.  It  is  the 
migration  stage  during  which  they  are  spread  from 


FOX   SPARROWS,    EATERS   OF   WEED   SEEDS 


DESTROYERS  OF  WEED  SEEDS          85 

place  to  place.  Many  of  the  troublesome  qualities 
which  weeds  possess  are  due  indirectly  to  certain 
characteristics  of  the  seeds:  (1)  the  enormous  num- 
ber produced  by  a  single  plant;  (2)  their  remarkable 
adaptations  for  dispersal;  and  (3)  their  wonderful 
vitality. 

Productivity  of  weeds.  A  single  plant  of  many 
common  weeds  like  the  foxtail  and  the  lamb's-quar- 
ters  may  produce  25,000  seeds.  It  has  been  esti- 
mated that  a  single  plant  of  purslane  may  produce 
100,000  seeds;  of  pigweed,  300,000;  of  lamb's-quar- 
ters,  1,800,000;  and  of  wormseed,  26,000,000.  At 
Ames,  Iowa,  a  square  rod  of  ground  in  a  garden, 
which  had  been  in  potatoes  the  year  before  and  cul- 
tivated with  a  hoe,  yielded  187,884  plants  of  eight 
common  weeds. 

Dispersal  of  weed  seeds.  The  seeds  of  weeds  are 
well  adapted  for  dispersal.  Many  are  scattered  by 
the  wind;  some  of  the  tumble-weeds  are  rolled  along 
on  the  prairies;  some  have  winglike  attachments, 
like  the  docks;  others  have  hairlike  appendages,  like 
the  dandelions.  Others  have  hooks  by  means  of 
which  they  may  be  attached  to  clothing  and  fur  and 
thus  be  carried  long  distances. 

Vitality  of  weed  seeds.  And  then,  finally,  after 
the  seeds  have  reached  their  resting-places,  they  may 
retain  their  vitality  and  be  able  to  germinate  after 
many  years  of  exposure  to  winter  cold  and  summer 
drought.  The  seeds  of  most  of  our  common  weeds 


86  BIRD  FRIENDS 

retain  their  vitality  from  three  to  five  years.  The 
mustard  seeds  may  retain  theirs  for  ten  years.  In  one 
study  made  on  the  longevity  of  seeds,  some  seeds  of 
the  Indian  mallow  and  shoo-fly  germinated  after  a 
lapse  of  fifty-seven  years,  and  the  seed  of  white 
sweet  clover  after  seventy-seven  years. 

Birds  as  destroyers  of  weed  seeds.  We  have 
already  seen  that  another  enemy  of  the  farmer  is  the 
insect,  and  it  is  a  very  interesting  and  remarkable 
fact  of  vital  importance  to  the  farmer  that  one  of 
Nature's  means  of  controlling  both  these  pests  is  the 
same,  namely,  the  birds.  Sometimes  one  group  of 
birds  helps  to  control  the  insect  pests,  and  another 
group  helps  to  control  weed  pests,  but  in  many  cases 
the  same  birds  help  to  control  both  insect  and  weed 
pests,  as  is  the  case  with  the  native  sparrows.  In 
fact,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  those  birds  which 
feed  upon  weed  seeds  also  feed  upon  insects,  al- 
though there  are  many  birds  which  feed  upon  insects 
that  do  not  eat  weed  seeds. 

There  are  two  or  three  hundred  kinds  of  birds 
known  to  eat  weed  seeds  to  some  extent,  and  about 
one  hundred  kinds  of  weed  seeds  are  known  to  be 
eaten.  The  birds  which  are  most  effective  in  con- 
trolling weeds  are  the  bob-white,  the  mourning  dove, 
and  the  native  sparrows.  The  seeds  most  commonly 
eaten  are  those  of  ragweed,  pigeon-grass,  crab- 
grass,  bindv/T3ed,  purslane,  smartweed,  pigweed,  and 
lamb's-quarters. 


DESTROYERS  OF  WEED  SEEDS          87 

The  percentage  of  weed  seeds  eaten  by  some  of 
the  more  effective  weed-seed  destroyers  are  shown  in 
the  following  table,  based  on  the  reports  of  the 
Bureau  of  Biological  Survey :  - 

Name  of  bird  Per  cent  of  wholefood 

thai  weed  seeds  form 

Mourning  dove 64 

Horned  lark 64 

Cowbird 60 

Red- winged  blackbird 55 

Chipping  sparrow 53 

Bob-white 50 

Song  sparrow 50 

Vesper  sparrow 42 

Field  sparrow 40 

The  following  table,  also  based  on  the  reports  of 
the  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey,  shows  the  number 
of  different  kinds  of  weed  seeds  known  to  be  eaten 
by  certain  species  of  birds :  — 

Name  of  bird  Number  of  kinds  of 

weed  seeds  eaten 

Crow  blackbird 6 

Rose-breasted  grosbeak 14 

Red-winged  blackbird 14 

Cowbird 17 

Horned  lark 38 

Cardinal 39 

Bob-white 129 

Amounts  eaten.  As  birds  are  capable  of  eating 
enormous  quantities  of  insects,  so,  too,  some  eat 
enormous  quantities  of  weed  seeds.  It  is  common  for 
a  crow  blackbird  to  eat  from  thirty  to  fifty  seeds  of 
smartweed,  and  a  field  sparrow  one  hundred  seeds 
of  crabgrass,  at  one  meal.  Dr.  Judd  estimated  that 


88 


BIRD  FRIENDS 


on  an  acre  of  land  on  a  Maryland  farm,  the  540  birds 
found  there  destroyed  46,000  weed  seeds  at  a  single 
breakfast. 

Mr.  E.  H.  Forbush,  during  one  winter,  fed  the 
birds  at  his  window  with  seeds  of  Japanese  millet, 
a  sort  of  weed  improved  by  cultivation,  whose  seeds 
are  larger  than  those  of  most  weeds.  Records  were 
kept  of  the  number  of  seeds  eaten  in  a  certain  time. 
It  was  found  that  the  three  species  feeding  averaged 
each  to  eat  thirty-five  seeds  per  minute.  Assuming 
that  each  bird  fed  on  weed  seeds  at  this  rate  for  only 
one  hour  a  day,  it  would  destroy  2100  seeds  daily, 
or  14,700  weekly. 

The  following  table,  based  on  the  reports  of  the 
Bureau  of  Biological  Survey,  shows  the  number  of 
weed  seeds  that  have  been  found  in  a  single  stomach 
of  various  birds :  — 


Name  of  bird 

Number  of 
weed  seeds 

Kind  of  weed 

Crow  blackbird   

50 

Smartweed 

Field  sparrow     

100 

Crabgrass 

Chipping  sparrow  

150 

Crabgrass 

Tree  sparrow 

700 

Pigeon-grass 

Snow  bunting 

1,500 

Amaranth 

IN^ourning  dove      .        .... 

7,500 

Yellow  wood-sorrel 

Bob-white       

10,000 

Pigweed 

It  is  estimated  that  in  the  States  of  Virginia  and 
North  Carolina,  the  bob-white  consumes  thirteen 
hundred  tons  of  weed  seeds  in  eight  months. 


GOLDFINCH 


DESTROYERS  OF  WEED  SEEDS          89 

/Professor  Beal  estimates  the  amount  of  weed  seed 
annually  destroyed  by  the  tree  sparrow  in  Iowa  as 
follows:  — 

On  the  basis  of  one  fourth  of  an  ounce  of  seed  eaten 
daily  by  each  bird,  and  an  average  of  ten  birds  to  each 
square  mile,  remaining  in  their  winter  range  two  hundred 
days,  there  would  be  a  total  of  1,750,000  pounds,  or  875 
tons,  of  weed  seed  consumed  in  a  single  season  by  this  one 
species.  Large  as  are  these  figures,  they  unquestionably 
fall  far  short  of  the  reality. 

Effect  on  weed-patches.  Studies  that  have  been 
made  of  patches  of  weeds  after  being  visited  by  birds 
show  that  the  work  of  destroying  the  seeds  is  done 
very  effectively  by  them.  In  April,  Dr.  Judd  exam- 
ined weed-patches  on  a  farm  in  Maryland  to  see  to 
what  extent  the  seeds  had  been  destroyed.  In  one 
field,  where  in  the  fall  there  had  been  scores  of  seeds 
on  every  ragweed  plant,  it  was  difficult  to  find,  during 
a  fifteen-minute  search,  half  a  dozen  seeds  remain- 
ing. In  another  field,  in  a  thick  growth  of  pigeon- 
grass,  where  there  had  been  hundreds  of  seeds  in 
the  fall,  sometimes  not  a  single  one  was  found;  and 
on  a  mat  of  crabgrass,  where  there  had  been  thou- 
sands in  the  fall,  frequently  not  one  was  left. 

The  native  sparrows  are  specially  efficient  de- 
stroyers of  weed  seeds,  and  sometimes  in  two  months 
will  destroy  ninety  per  cent  of  the  seeds  of  pigeon- 
grass  and  ragweed.  Weed  seeds  form  more  than  half 
of  their  food  for  the  entire  year,  and  during  the  colder 


90  BIRD  FRIENDS 

f 

half  of  the  year  they  form  about  four  fifths  of  the 
food  of  some  sparrows.  Most  of  the  work  of  destroy- 
ing weed  seeds  is  done  between  early  autumn  and 
late  spring.  During  the  summer  the  birds  feed  largely 
on  insects. 

Mr.  H.  W.  Henshaw,  chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Bio- 
logical Survey,  estimates  that  in  the  year  1906  the 
weed-seed-eating  birds  saved  to  the  farmers  of  the 
country  $35,000,000,  on  the  assumption  that  the  de- 
struction of  these  weed  seeds  resulted  in  the  saving 
of  only  one  per  cent  of  the  crop. 


CHAPTER  IX 

FRIENDS  AMONG   THE   BIRDS  AS  DESTROYERS 
OF   RODENT   PESTS 

Harm  done  by  rodents.  Another  enemy  of  the 
farmer  is  the  group  of  animals  called  rodents,  such 
as  mice,  rats,  ground  squirrels,  and  rabbits,  which 
destroy  crops.  The  ground  squirrels  damage  grain 
and  forage  crops  to  the  extent  of  many  millions  of 
dollars  annually;  and  it  is  known  that  they  carry 
the  germs  of  bubonic  plague.  The  leopard  ground 
squirrel,  found  in  the  western  United  States,  digs 
up  newly  planted  corn,  and  eats  clover  and  alfalfa. 
The  gray  ground  squirrel,  found  in  the  Dakotas  and 
the  neighboring  States,  feeds  upon  young  chickens. 
Some  squirrels  destroy  eggs  of  valuable  birds.  In  the 
Middle  West,  the  prairie  dogs  cause  great  damage  by 
feeding  on  grains,  and  their  burrows  and  hillocks  are 
troublesome.  Rats  and  mice  are  the  most  harmful 
rodent  pests  found  on  the  farm.  They  eat  almost 
any  vegetable  or  grain  crop  and  girdle  fruit-trees. 
The  rat  carries  disease-germs,  being  especially  con- 
nected with  the  transmission  of  bubonic  plague. 
The  meadow  mouse  destroys  meadows  by  tunneling 
under  them  and  eating  the  roots  of  grass. 

Rabbits,  on  account  of  their  size  and  abundance, 


92  BIRD  FRIENDS 

do  much  harm.  They  eat  all  sorts  of  plant  prod- 
ucts, including  grains  and  vegetables.  The  softer 
products  constitute  their  summer  food,  and  in  the 
winter,  bark  and  twigs  are  eaten,  damage  being 
done  by  girdling  fruit-trees.  In  the  West  they  are 
especially  destructive  to  melons,  pears,  and  cab- 
bages. 

Pocket  gophers  live  on  a  great  variety  of  plant 
products  and  are  especially  destructive  to  potatoes 
and  alfalfa,  and  do  much  damage  to  fruit  and  shade 
trees. 

Value  of  hawks  and  owls.  Nature's  chief  checks 
for  controlling  these  rodent  pests  are  the  hawks  and 
owls,  whose  food  consists  largely  of  these  injurious 
animals,  although  insects,  poultry,  and  wild  birds 
form  minor  items  of  their  food.  These  two  groups 
of  birds  supplement  each  other,  the  hawks  working 
by  day  and  the  owls  by  night.  As  with  other  birds, 
so  here,  enormous  quantities  of  food  are  eaten.  It  is 
the  habit  of  owls  to  disgorge  pellets  of  indigestible 
matter  —  bones,  fur,  etc.  —  taken  with  their  food. 
An  examination,  made  by  Dr.  A.  K.  Fisher,  of  the 
pellets  found  during  a  summer  beneath  the  nest  of 
a  pair  of  barn  owls  showed  the  presence  of  432  skulls 
of  mice  and  rats,  out  of  a  total  of  454  skulls  found 
in  200  pellets.  A  similar  study  of  long-eared  owls 
in  another  locality,  made  during  several  winter 
months,  showed  that  each  owl  on  the  average  de- 
stroyed two  mice  a  day.  Under  the  nest  of  a  pair  of 


DESTROYERS  OF  RODENT  PESTS        93 

great  horned  owls  there  were  found  at  one  time  the 
remains  of  over  100  rats. 

No  group  of  birds  has  been  so  misunderstood  as 
the  hawks  and  owls.  A  few  hawks  do  damage  to 
poultry,  and  the  belief  is  somewhat  prevalent  that 
all  hawks  and  owls  are  injurious.  It  is  as  though  the 
whole  human  race  were  to  be  judged  by  the  crimi- 
nals found  in  jails  and  prisons.  It  is  unfortunate 
that  there  should  be  this  misunderstanding  regard- 
ing these  birds,  because,  excepting  five  or  six  kinds, 
they  are  man's  friends,  constituting,  as  they  do, 
about  the  only  natural  check  now  left  on  these  rodent 
pests. 

Bounties.  During  years  past  bounties  have  been 
offered  in  some  States  on  all  hawks  and  owls,  and  as 
a  result  great  harm  has  been  done  the  farmer,  who 
has  suffered  more  severely  through  the  increase  of 
rodent  pests  which  followed  the  destruction  of  their 
enemies.  Through  ignorance  of  the  economic  value 
of  these  birds,  in  1885  a  law  was  passed  in  Pennsyl- 
vania placing  a  bounty  of  fifty  cents  on  each  hawk 
and  owl.  In  a  few  years  so  many  of  these  birds  were 
killed  that  there  was  an  increase  in  the  amount  of 
harm  done  to  crops  by  rodent  pests,  so  that  the 
farmers  had  the  bounty  law  repealed.  Dr.  C.  Hart 
Merriam  estimated  that,  as  a  result  of  this  bounty 
law  and  the  consequent  destruction  of  about  one 
hundred  thousand  hawks  and  owls,  the  State  of 
Pennsylvania  suffered  an  annual  loss  to  its  agricul- 


94  BIRD  FRIENDS 

tural  interests  of  two  and  a  half  million  dollars,  or 
that  the  State  threw  away  $2105  for  every  dollar 
saved. 

Study  of  food  of  hawks  and  owls.  The  Bureau  of 
Biological  Survey  has  made  a  very  careful  study  of 
the  food  habits  of  the  hawks  and  owls,  and  as  a 
result  these  birds  are  divided  into  four  groups  by 
Dr.  A.  K.  Fisher,  who  had  charge  of  the  investi- 
gations:  

(1)  Species  which  are  wholly  beneficial.  To  this 
class   belong   six    species:   the   large   rough-legged 
hawk,  the  squirrel  hawk,  or  ferruginous  rough-leg, 
and  the  four  kites. 

(2)  Species  chiefly  beneficial.  This  class  contains 
a  majority  of  the  hawks  and  owls,  including  twenty- 
nine  species,  of  which  the  following  are  among  the 
more  common:  marsh  hawk,  red-tailed  hawk,  red- 
shouldered  hawk,  Swainson's  hawk,  broad-winged 
hawk,   sparrow  hawk,  barn  owl,   long-eared  owl, 
short-eared  owl,  and  screech  owl. 

(3)  Species  in  which  beneficial  and  harmful  quali- 
ties about  balance.  This  class  includes  seven  species : 
the  golden  eagle,  bald  eagle,  pigeon  hawk,  Richard- 
son's hawk,  Aplomado  falcon,  prairie  falcon,  and 
great  horned  owl. 

(4)  Harmful  species.  This  class  contains  five  spe- 
cies: the  gyrfalcons,  duck  hawk,  goshawk,  sharp- 
shinned  hawk,  and  Cooper's  hawk.    Of  these  the 
first  three  are  so  rare  that  they  do  not  need  to  be 


SCREECH   OWL 


DESTROYERS  OF  RODENT  PESTS         95 

taken  into  account,  thus  leaving  only  two  injurious 
hawks  and  no  injurious  owls  that  are  at  all  common. 
The  chief  harm  done  by  the  birds  in  this  class  is  in 
destroying  poultry  and  valuable  insectivorous  and 
game  birds. 

Thus  approximately  ten  per  cent  of  the  species  of 
hawks  and  owls  are  harmful,  fifteen  per  cent  are 
neutral,  and  seventy-five  per  cent  are  beneficial. 

Some  bird-students  place  the  pigeon  hawk  and 
great  horned  owl  in  the  harmful  group  instead  of  the 
neutral  group,  the  former  on  account  of  the  number 
of  song-birds  destroyed,  and  the  latter  on  account  of 
the  poultry  and  game-birds  eaten. 

The  following  table  is  based  on  the  results  of  a 
study  of  hawks  and  owls  made  by  the  Bureau  of 
Biological  Survey.  In  this  study  about  twenty- 
seven  hundred  stomachs  were  examined.  The  per- 
centages here  given  are  based  on  the  number  of 
stomachs  found  to  contain  the  different  articles  of 
food.  A  more  accurate  estimate  would  be  obtained 
by  estimating  the  percentage  of  the  total  amount  of 
food,  but  the  table  gives  a  fair  estimate  of  the  eco- 
nomic status  of  each  bird.  In  many  cases  the  stom- 
achs were  found  empty,  and  in  computing  this  table 
the  percentages  have  been  based  on  the  number  of 
stomachs  found  with  food.  By  this  method  of  com- 
puting the  percentages,  the  sums  for  one  bird  total 
more  than  one  hundred,  because  usually  a  bird  had 
fed  on  several  kinds  of  food. 


96 


BIRD  FRIENDS 


FOOD  CHART  OF  HAWKS  AND  OWLS 

(Based  on  number  of  birds  eating  various  foods) 


Per  cent 

Per  cent 

eating 

Per  cent 

eating 

Per  cent 

Name  of  bird 

mammal 
pests 

eating 
insects 

poultry 
and  game- 

eating 
other  birds 

birds 

Chiefly  beneficial 

species 

Red-tailed  hawk.. 

86 

10 

11 

10 

Red-shouldered 

hawk  

70 

45 

1| 

6 

Marsh  hawk  

68 

12 

6 

30 

Broad-winged 

hawk  

50 

52 

0 

M 

Sparrow  hawk  .  .  . 

34 

72 

I 

3 

18 

Short-eared  owl  .  . 

96 

8 

0 

12 

Long-eared  owl..  . 

96 

1 

1 

16 

Barred  owl  

72 

16 

6 

15 

Screech  owl  

48 

47 

| 

13 

Neutral  species 

2 

Great  horned  owl. 

71 

9 

28 

7 

Pigeon  hawk  

4 

31 

4 

80 

Harmful  species 
Cooper's  hawk  .  .  . 

12 

2 

36 

55 

Sharp-shinned 

hawk  

6 

5 

6 

92 

Average  .  .  . 

55 

24 

8 

27 

The  table  shows  that  approximately  seven  times 
as  many  birds  had  eaten  mammal  pests  as  had  eaten 
poultry  and  game-birds. 

The  results  of  these  studies  were  published  in  a 
bulletin  in  which  the  economic  status  is  briefly  sum- 
marized as  follows:  — 


DESTROYERS  OF  RODENT  PESTS         97 

The  result  proves  that  a  class  of  birds  commonly  looked 
upon  as  enemies  to  the  farmer,  and  indiscriminately  de- 
stroyed whenever  occasion  offers,  really  rank  among  his 
best  friends,  and  with  few  exceptions  should  be  preserved 
and  encouraged  to  take  up  their  abode  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  his  home.  Only  six  of  the  seventy-three  species 
and  subspecies  of  hawks  and  owls  of  the  United  States 
are  injurious.  Of  these,  three  are  so  extremely  rare  that 
they  need  hardly  be  considered,  and  another  (the  fish 
hawk)  is  only  indirectly  injurious,  leaving  but  two  (the 
sharp-shinned  and  Cooper's  hawks)  that  really  need  to  be 
taken  into  account  as  enemies  to  agriculture.  Omitting 
the  six  species  that  feed  largely  on  poultry  and  game, 
2212  stomachs  were  examined,  of  which  56  per  cent  con- 
tained mice  and  other  small  mammals,  27  per  cent  in- 
sects, and  only  3i  per  cent  poultry  and  game-birds.  In 
view  of  these  facts  the  folly  of  offering  bounties  for  the 
destruction  of  hawks  and  owls,  as  has  been  done  by 
several  States,  becomes  apparent,  and  the  importance  of 
an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  economic  status  of  our 
common  birds  and  mammals  is  overwhelmingly  demon- 
strated. 

Money  value  of  hawks  and  owls.  Mr.  H.  W. 
Henshaw,  chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Biological  Sur- 
vey, estimates  that  Swainson's  hawk  saves  the 
Western  farmers  one  hundred  thousand  dollars  a 
year  through  the  destruction  of  injurious  insects  and 
small  rodents. 

Dr.  C.  Hart  Merriam,  former  chief  of  the  Bureau 
of  Biological  Survey,  estimates  the  value  of  a  hawk 
or  owl  as  follows:  — 

It  is  within  bounds  to  say  that  within  the  course  of  a 
year  every  hawk  and  owl  destroys  at  least  a  thousand 


98  BIRD  FRIENDS 

mice  or  their  equivalent  in  insects,  and  that  each  mouse  or 
its  equivalent  so  destroyed  would  cause  the  farmer  a  loss 
of  two  cents  per  annum.  Therefore,  the  lowest  estimate 
of  the  value  to  the  farmer  of  each  hawk  and  owl  would 
be  twenty  dollars  a  year. 

Mr.  E.  H.  Baynes  estimates  the  money  value  of 
a  pair  of  marsh  hawks  substantially  as  follows: 
Eight  meadow  mice  have  been  found  in  the  stomach 
of  a  single  marsh  hawk.  Assuming  on  the  average 
that  the  bird  destroys  only  half  this  number  each 
day,  a  pair  would  destroy  2920  mice  in  a  year.  It 
has  been  estimated  that  each  mouse  causes  an 
annual  loss  to  the  farmer  of  two  cents  in  damaging 
crops.  Thus  the  destruction  of  2920  mice  means 
the  saving  of  $58.40,  which  represents'  the  yearly 
money  value  of  a  pair  of  marsh  hawks. 


CHAPTER  X 

FOES   AMONG   THE   BIRDS 

BIRDS  may  be  harmful  to  man  in  the  following 
ways:  (1)  by  eating  cultivated  fruits;  (2)  by  eating 
grains;  (3)  by  destroying  poultry;  (4)  by  injuring 
trees  and  wood  products;  (5)  by  feeding  on  benefi- 
cial insects;  (6)  by  injuring  other  birds  which  are 
valuable. 

Fruit-eaters.  A  number  of  birds  eat  cultivated 
fruits  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  The  fruits  chiefly 
damaged  are  the  smaller  ones,  such  as  strawberries, 
raspberries,  blackberries,  cherries,  and  olives,  and 
sometimes  grapes  may  be  punctured.  The  chief 
fruit-eating  birds,  arranged  in  the  order  of  the  per- 
centage which  fruit  forms  of  the  whole  food,  are 
shown  in  the  following  table:  — 

Name  of  bird  Per  cent  of  whole  food  that 

cultivated  fruits  form 

Catbird 19 

Cedar-bird 13 

Brown  thrasher 8 

Robin 8 

In  certain  localities  the  injury  done  may  be  very 
serious.  During  the  winter  of  1900-01  enormous 
numbers  of  robins  visited  the  olive  orchards  of  some 
portions  of  California  and  did  thousands  of  dollars 


100  BIRD  FRIENDS 

worth  of  damage,  in  some  orchards  ruining  from  one 
fourth  to  one  half  the  crop. 

There  is  seldom  any  widespread  complaint  re- 
garding the  harm  done  by  birds  in  destroying  fruit, 
the  injury  usually  being  confined  to  some  small  lo- 
cality where  there  has  been  an  increase  in  the 
number  of  fruit-eating  birds  or  a  decrease  in  the 
supply  of  wild  fruit  on  which  these  birds  usually 
subsist. 

The  remedy  is  not  found  in  permitting  wholesale 
slaughter  of  these  birds  throughout  the  whole  coun- 
try, but  it  may  be  necessary  to  allow  shooting  in 
those  localities  where  the  harm  is  done,  so  that  the 
fruit-growers  may  protect  themselves.  Those  birds 
which  feed  on  cultivated  fruits  feed  to  an  even 
greater  extent  on  wild  fruits,  which  if  present  in 
sufficient  quantities,  are  usually  preferred  to  the 
cultivated. 

Complaints  against  the  robin  have  come  chiefly 
from  two  sources,  the  suburbs  of  large  towns  in  the 
East  and  the  prairie  region  of  the  West.  In  these 
localities  those  wild  fruits  which  robins  prefer  are 
naturally  lacking,  and  hence  the  robins  turn  to  the 
cultivated  fruits. 

Injury  to  grain.  Several  birds  do  considerable 
damage  to  grain,  either  to  the  newly  planted  seed  in 
the  spring,  or  to  the  matured  grain  in  the  fall.  The 
grains  chiefly  affected  are  corn,  wheat,  and  oats. 
The  birds  that  feed  upon  grain,  in  the  order  of  the 


pig 


ENGLISH    SPARROW 
Upper,  male ;  lower,  female 


FOES  AMONG  THE  BIRDS  101 

percentage  that  grain  forms  of  the  whole  food,  are 
shown  in  the  following  table:  — 

Name  of  bird  Per  cent  of  the  whale 

food  that  grain  forms 

English  sparrow 74 

Crow  blackbird 46 

Crow 29 

Cowbird 16 

Red-winged  blackbird 14 

The  crow  does  damage  chiefly  to  the  sprouting 
grain,  the  other  birds  to  the  maturing  crop.  The 
crow  and  crow  blackbird  do  their  chief  damage  to 
corn.  The  red- winged  blackbird  is  especially  de- 
structive in  the  Mississippi  Valley.  Favorable  con- 
ditions for  breeding  are  found  in  the  sloughs  and 
marshes,  and  after  the  young  have  left  the  nest, 
large  flocks  may  settle  upon  grain-fields  and  do  dam^ 
age,  both  by  eating  the  grain  and  by  breaking  down 
the  straw  and  making  it  difficult  to  cut. 

These  birds  do  not  seem  to  be  especially  fond  of 
grain  as  compared  with  wild  foods,  but  are  driven  to 
eating  it  on  account  of  an  excessive  number  of  birds 
of  the  same  kind  living  in  a  limited  area.  In  time 
a  proper  equilibrium  will  probably  be  established, 
when  the  birds  will  exist  in  smaller  numbers  and 
hence  do  less  damage.  A  study  of  the  months  when 
this  grain  was  eaten  and  of  the  places  where  it  was 
collected  shows  that  it  was  probably  at  least  half 
waste  grain  collected  in  the  fields  or  on  the  ground 
after  the  grain  had  been  harvested,  so  that  this 


102  BIRD  FRIENDS 

represents  no  loss  to  the  farmer  and  should  not  be 
counted  against  the  birds. 

The  bobolink  in  rice-fields.  In  the  North  the 
bobolink  is  beneficial  in  its  feeding-habits  and  has 
associated  with  it  some  of  the  pleasantest  memories 
of  the  springtime.  But  in  the  South,  until  recently, 
the  case  was  entirely  different.  The  birds  arrive  in 
the  South  in  April  just  after  the  rice  seeds  have  been 
planted  and  do  some  damage  to  the  sprouting  grain. 
The  birds  nest  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United 
States  and  after  the^  breeding-season  is  over  gather 
in  flocks  and  migrate  southward,  and  used  to  arrive 
in  the  rice-fields  the  last  of  August,  and  for  two 
months  were  present  in  millions,  during  which  time 
rice  constituted  almost  their  entire  food.  These 
birds  caused  great  loss  to  the  rice-grower,  estimated 
at  two  million  dollars  annually.  There  was  the  di- 
rect loss  due  to  the  eating  of  the  rice  and  the  indirect 
loss  on  account  of  the  expense  involved  in  the  meth- 
ods used  to  keep  off  the  bobolinks.  Men  and  boys 
were  posted  in  the  rice-fields  from  sunrise  to  sunset  to 
fire  blank  cartridges  and  thus  frighten  off  the  birds. 

Formerly  the  harm  done  by  the  bobolinks  in  the 
South  by  eating  rice  was  greater  than  the  good  done 
by  them  in  the  North  in  destroying  injurious  insects 
and  weed  seeds.  But  the  injury  now  done  is  consid- 
erably less  than  formerly,  as  is  shown  by  the  follow- 
ing quotation  from  a  recent  bulletin  of  the  Bureau 
of  Biological  Survey:  — 


FOES  AMONG  THE  BIRDS  103 

Formerly,  when  the  low,  marshy  shores  of  the  Caro- 
linas  and  some  of  the  more  southern  States  were  de- 
voted to  rice-culture,  the  bobolinks  made  great  havoc 
upon  the  sprouting  rice  in  spring  and  upon  the  ripen- 
ing grain  on  their  return  migration  in  the  fall.  With  a 
change  in  the  rice-raising  districts,  however,  this  damage 
is  no  longer  done. 

Destruction  of  poultry.  Some  of  the  hawks  and 
owls  destroy  poultry,  but,  as  already  pointed  out  in 
discussing  the  value  of  these  birds  in  destroying 
rodents,  this  is  the  exception  and  not  the  rule.  Only 
one  common  hawk,  Cooper's  hawk,  does  any  serious 
damage  in  the  poultry-yard.  The  sharp-shinned 
hawk,  which  is  one  of  the  injurious  hawks,  is  too 
small  to  do  much  damage  to  the  larger  fowl,  and 
finds  its  food  chiefly  among  the  small  native  birds. 
Other  hawks  and  owls  occasionally  destroy  poultry, 
but  the  harm  done  is  much  more  than  balanced  by 
the  good  done  in  destroying  mammal  pests.  Fol- 
lowing is  a  list  of  hawks  and  owls  arranged  in  the 
order  of  the  percentage  of  individuals  that  had  eaten 
poultry :  — 

Name  of  bird  Per  cent  of  birds  that 

had  eaten  poultry 

Cooper's  hawk 36 

Great  horned  owl 28 

Red-tailed  hawk 11 

Marsh  hawk 6 

Sharp-shinned  hawk 6 

Barred  owl 6 

The  percentage  of  the  others  is  zero,  or  so  small 
as  to  be  negligible. 


104  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Damage  to  trees  and  wood  products.  Wood- 
peckers drill  small  holes  in  trees  to  obtain  insects 
and  make  large  holes  for  nesting-sites.  When  these 
are  made  in  dead  wood,  no  harm  is  done,  but  when 
made  in  living  wood,  some  slight  harm  may  result, 
and  occasionally  telephone-poles  are  weakened  by 
holes  bored  by  woodpeckers.  On  the  whole,  the 
harm  done  in  these  ways  is  very  slight  and  does  not 
deserve  serious  consideration  in  the  light  of  the  good 
these  birds  do.  But  there  is  one  woodpecker  which 
does  serious  damage  both  to  living  trees  and  to  wood 
products  made  from  trees;  that  is  the  sapsucker,  of 
which  there  are  three  species  in  the  United  States, 
the  yellow-bellied  sapsucker  being  the  only  one 
found  in  the  eastern  United  States. 

The  sapsucker  feeds  to  a  large  extent  on  the  bast, 
or  inner  layer  of  the  bark,  the  cambium,  or  growing 
tissue,  and  the  sap  of  trees.  In  order  to  obtain  this 
food,  holes  are  drilled  into  trees.  These  are  often 
arranged  in  rings  around  the  tree  and  may  girdle  it. 
Strips  of  bark  between  the  holes  may  also  be  removed. 

Since  the  inner  bark  is  one  of  the  channels  through 
which  sap  passes  in  the  tree,  the  removal  of  this 
bark  seriously  interferes  with  the  growth  of  the  tree. 
The  tree  may  simply  have  its  vitality  lowered,  or  a 
few  branches  may  die,  or  the  whole  tree  may  die, 
depending  on  the  number  and  arrangement  of  the 
holes.  These  holes  furnish  opportunity  for  insects 
and  fungi  to  enter  and  do  further  harm.  Altogether 


FOES  AMONG  THE  BIRDS  105 

the  yellow-bellied  sapsucker  has  been  known  to  at- 
tack 246  species  of  native  trees  and  31  kinds  of  in- 
troduced trees,  a  total  of  277  trees.  Of  these,  29 
species  are  known  sometimes  to  have  been  killed, 
and  28  others  are  known  to  have  been  disfigured  or 
seriously  reduced  in  vitality. 

But  the  damage  done  is  not  confined  to  the  living 
trees.  Of  greater  comnierical  loss  is  the  resulting 
injury  to  the  wood  products  after  the  tree  is  cut 
down.  When  the  tree  heals  and  new  wood  grows 
around  the  holes  made  by  the  sapsucker,  blemishes 
of  various  kinds  may  appear,  such  as  staining,  dis- 
tortion of  the  grain,  or  formation  of  knotty  growths 
and  cavities.  As  a  result,  the  value  of  the  wood  is 
reduced.  These  defects  especially  render  unfit  for 
use  the  woods  used  for  ornamental  purposes,  such 
as  mahogany  and  black  walnut;  they  may  blemish 
woods  valuable  for  some  special  quality,  such  as 
hickory ;  and  sometimes  they  may  even  destroy  the 
value  of  wood  used  for  heavy  construction  purposes, 
such  as  Western  hemlock  and  Southern  bass  wood. 
The  wood  of  one  hundred  and  seventy-four  species  of 
trees  has  been  found  to  contain  defects  due  to  sap- 
sucker  work.  It  is  estimated  that  one  tenth  of  all 
the  trees  within  the  sapsucker's  range  bears  marks 
of  his  work,  and  so  wood  of  one  tenth  of  the  trees 
would  contain  defects.  This  matter  has  been  care- 
fully investigated  by  the  Bureau  of  Biological  Sur- 
vey, with  the  result  that  it  is  estimated  that  the 


106  BIRD  FRIENDS 

annual  loss  due  to  the  sapsucker  is  a  million  and  a 
quarter  dollars. 

Destroying  beneficial  insects.  Some  insects  are 
helpful  to  man,  such  as  the  parasitic  and  predacious 
insects  that  prey  upon  injurious  insects,  the  bees  and 
wasps  that  pollinate  fruit  flowers,  and  the  honey- 
bee, which  produces  honey.  It  is  to  be  expected  that 
birds  in  their  search  for  insects  would  feed  on  the 
beneficial  forms  as  well  as  those  that  are  injurious  to 
man.  To  what  extent  these  insects  form  a  part  of 
birds'  food  and  how  this  compares  with  the  amount 
of  injurious  insects  eaten  are  questions  to  be  investi- 
gated in  determining  the  economic  status  of  birds. 
The  worst  offenders  in  this  line  of  destroying  benefi- 
cial insects  are  found  in  the  family  of  flycatchers, 
including  the  phcebe,  kingbird,  chebec,  and  wood 
pewee.  These  insects  are  also  eaten  to  some  extent 
by  the  swallows  and  warblers. 

Dr.  Judd  found  in  his  studies  of  the  "Birds  of  a 
Maryland  Farm,"  after  an  examination  of  about 
seven  hundred  stomachs  representing  one  hundred 
and  sixty-three  species,  that  beneficial  insects 
formed  four  per  cent  of  their  food  while  injurious 
insects  formed  twenty-seven  per  cent.  This  would 
probably  hold  true  for  birds  as  a  class,  that  their 
food  contains  seven  times  as  many  injurious  as 
beneficial  insects.  The  small  size  of  many  parasitic 
insects  helps  to  explain  why  birds  feed  on  these  in- 
sects to  such  a  small  extent. 


FOES  AMONG  THE  BIRDS  107 

4 

It  does  not  always  follow  that  birds  are  doing 

harm  when  destroying  these  beneficial  insects.  In 
the  case  of  the  small  parasites,  their  presence  in  the 
bird's  stomach  suggests  that  probably  these  insects 
at  the  time  were  unusually  abundant  and  probably 
little  harm  was  done  by  destroying  their  excess.  In 
the  case  of  parasitic  insects  eaten  during  the  latter 
half  of  the  summer,  there  would  not  have  been  suffi- 
cient time  for  these  to  become  effective  even  had 
they  lived.  There  is  also  to  be  considered  the  fact 
that  the  parasites  often  destroy  useful  insects  or  are 
destroyed  by  other  insects.  So  that  when  all  things 
are  taken  into  consideration  in  this  complicated 
problem,  the  amount  of  harm  done  by  birds  in  eat- 
ing beneficial  insects  is  not  so  great  as  might  at  first 
appear. 

Injury  to  valuable  birds.  Some  birds  may  be 
harmful  by  injuring  other  birds  which  are  distinctly 
valuable.  In  some  cases  the  adult  birds  may  be 
killed  and  used  for  food.  The  worst  offenders  are 
the  sharp-shinned  hawk,  Cooper's  hawk,  pigeon 
hawk,  and  the  great  horned  owl,  especially  the 
sharp-shinned  hawk,  more  than  half  of  whose  food 
consists  of  small  valuable  birds.  This  hawk  has 
been  known  to  feed  on  forty-six  kinds  of  birds. 
Other  hawks  and  owls,  but  to  a  much  less  extent, 
may  occasionally  feed  on  song-birds.  Beneficial 
birds  form  about  one  fourth  of  the  food  of  the 
shrike,  or  butcher-bird.  In  other  cases  birds  may 


108  BIRD   FRIENDS 

destroy  the  eggs  and  nestlings  of  other  small  birds. 
The  crow,  blue  jay,  crow  blackbird,  and  English 
sparrow  are  offenders  along  this  line. 

In  still  another,  indirect,  way  birds  may  injure 
other  birds,  by  occupying  their  nesting-sites.  This  is 
one  of  the  chief  ways  in  which  the  English  sparrow 
is  harmful,  because  it  preempts  both  the  natural 
nesting-sites  and  the  boxes  provided  for  such  birds 
as  the  martin,  the  tree  swallow,  and  the  bluebird, 
and  often  drives  them  away  when  they  do  select 
a  nesting-site.  In  many  sections  these  birds  are 
decreasing  in  numbers  on  account  of  the  persecu- 
tions of  the  English  sparrow.  It  may  destroy  the 
eggs  and  young  of  these  birds  and  even  attack  other 
birds  that  do  not  use  similar  nesting-sites. 

The  starling,  which  is  now  found  in  the  East, 
seems  to  be  having  a  similar  effect,  but,  being  a 
larger  bird,  is  affecting  other  birds  such  as  the 
flicker.  The  cowbird  also  does  some  injury  through 
its  habit  of  laying  its  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other  birds, 
because  the  raising  of  the  young  usually  means  the 
death  of  several  young  birds  found  in  the  nest  with  it. 

Preventing  depredations  of  the  birds.  In  many 
cases  the  harm  that  birds  do  can  be  greatly  lessened 
by  observing  certain  precautions,  and  the  birds  may 
still  be  retained  for  the  good  they  do.  The  harm 
done  by  crows  in  the  spring  in  pulling  up  corn  may 
be  greatly  lessened  by  coating  the  corn  with  tar. 
Small  fruits  may  be  protected  by  planting  wild 


FOES  AMONG  THE  BIRDS  109 

fruits  that  ripen  at  about  the  same  time.  Birds  usu- 
ally prefer  these  wild  fruits  to  the  cultivated. 
Strawberries  and  cherries  may  be  protected  by 
planting  the  Russian  mulberry  and  June-berry. 
Blackberries  and  raspberries  may  be  protected  by 
planting  mulberry,  elder,  and  chokecherry.  Grapes 
may  be  protected  by  planting  elder,  Virginia 
creeper,  and  black  cherry. 


CHAPTER  XI 

STRIKING   THE   BALANCE 

HAVING  taken  up  in  turn  the  good  done  by  the 
birds  and  the  harm  done,  the  question  naturally 
arises  as  to  how  these  two  compare.  The  following 
standard  has  been  given  by  Dr.  Judd  for  de- 
termining the  economic  status  of  a  bird :  - 

For  a  rough  general  estimate  it  is  safe  to  assume  that 
a  bird  that  feeds  on  insects,  seeds,  and  fruit,  and  is  abun- 
dant on  a  farm,  will  do  more  good  than  harm,  and  usu- 
ally be  worthy  of  protection,  when  the  neutral  part  of 
its  food  forms  less  than  half  of  its  entire  food  and  its 
beneficial  food  amounts  to  several  times  its  injurious 
food. 

Applying  this  standard  to  our  common  birds, 
they  may  be  divided  into  three  groups:  injurious, 
neutral,  and  beneficial. 

To  the  injurious  group  belong  four  common  birds : 
the  English  sparrow,  the  sapsucker,  Cooper's  hawk, 
and  the  sharp-shinned  hawk. 

In  the  neutral  group  may  be  placed  those  birds  in 
which  the  beneficial  and  harmful  qualities  about  bal- 
ance. This  includes  five  birds :  the  catbird,  the  cedar- 
bird,  the  crow,  the  crow  blackbird,  and  the  blue  jay. 

The  remainder  of  our  common  birds  belong  to  the 
beneficial  group.  This  group  may  be  further  sub- 


STRIKING  THE  BALANCE  111 

divided  into  two  classes,  those  chiefly  beneficial  and 
those  almost  wholly  beneficial. 

In  the  class  of  chiefly  beneficial  birds  may  be 
placed  those  which  may  at  times  do  appreciable 
harm,  but  which,  taken  the  country  over  and 
throughout  the  entire  year,  do  much  more  good  than 
harm.  This  would  include  the  bobolink,  the  cow- 
bird,  the  red-winged  blackbird,  the  robin,  the  brown 
thrasher,  the  bluebird,  the  mourning  dove,  the 
meadowlark,  the  phcebe,  the  kingbird,  the  chebec, 
the  wood  pewee,  and  the  red-headed  woodpecker. 

To  the  group  of  almost  wholly  beneficial  birds 
belong  the  remainder  of  the  common  birds,  which 
do  so  little  harm  that  it  is  of  small  economic  im- 
portance. Such  birds  are  the  thrushes,  the  vireos, 
the  native  sparrows,  the  cuckoos,  the  wrens,  the 
swallows,  the  warblers,  the  chickadees,  the  wood- 
peckers, and  the  bob-white. 

The  birds  included  in  each  of  these  four  groups 
are  given  in  the  following  table  and  the  harm  and 
good  done  by  each  briefly  indicated :  — 

INJURIOUS  BIRDS 

Name  of  bird  Harm  done  Good  done 

Cooper's  hawk.  Eats  poultry  and  na-  Eats  a  few  mice. 

tive  birds. 

Sharp-shinned  hawk.    Eats  poultry  and  na-  Eats  a  few  mice. 

tive  birds. 

Sapsucker.  Injures  trees  and  wood  Eats  some  insect  pests 

products.  and  weed  seeds. 

English  sparrow.          Eats  grain;  drives  away  Eats  insect  pests  and 

native  birds.  weed  seeds. 


BIRD  FRIENDS 


NEUTRAL  BIRDS,  OR  BIRDS  OF  DOUBTFUL  UTILITY 

Name  of  bird  Harm  done  Good  done 

Catbird.  Eats  cultivated  fruit.       Eats  insect  pests. 

Cedar-bird  Eats  cultivated  fruit.       Eats  a  few  insect  pests. 

Crow.  Eats  grain,  and  eggs  and  Eats  insect  pests, 

nestlings  of  valuable 
birds. 

Crow  blackbird.  Eats  grain,  and  eggs  and  Eats  some  insect  pests 

nestlings  of  valuable       and  weed  seeds, 
birds. 

Blue  jay.  Eats    grain,    and    eggs  Eats  some  insect  pests, 

and  nestlings  of  valu- 
able birds. 


BIRDS  CHIEFLY  BENEFICIAL 


Name  of  bird  Harm  done 

Red-winged  blackbird.  Eats  grain. 


Bluebird. 
Bobolink. 

Cowbird. 

Mourning  dove. 

Flycatchers  (king- 
bird, phrebe,  pe- 
wee,  chebec). 

Meadowlark. 

Robin. 

Brown  thrasher. 


Red-headed 
pecker. 


wood- 


Eats  beneficial  insects. 
Eats  rice. 

Destroys  nestlings  of 

other  birds. 
Eats  grain. 
Eat  beneficial  insects. 


Eats  grain  and  benefi- 
cial insects. 

Eats  cultivated  fruit. 

Eats  cultivated  fruit 
and  beneficial  in- 
sects. 

Eats  beneficial  insects, 
grain,  and  cultivated 
fruit,  and  injures 
other  birds. 


Good  done 

Eats  insect  pests  and 

weed  seeds. 
Eats  insect  pests. 
Eats  insect  pests  and 

weed  seeds. 
Eats  insect  pests  and 

weed  seeds. 
Eats  weed  seeds. 
Eat  insect  pests. 


Eats  insect  pests  and 

weed  seeds. 
Eats  insect  pests. 
Eats  insect  pests 


Eats  insect  pests. 


STRIKING  THE  BALANCE  113 

BIRDS  ALMOST  WHOLLY  BENEFICIAL 

Name  of  bird  Good  done 

Bob-white.  Eats  insect  pests  and  weed  seeds. 

Chickadee.  Eats  insect  pests. 

Cuckoos  (two  species).  Eat  insect  pests. 

Rose-breasted  grosbeak.  Eats  insect  pests  and  weed  seeds. 

Nighthawk.  Eats  insect  pests. 

Baltimore  oriole.  Eats  insect  pests. 
Native  sparrows  (about  fifty  spe-    Eat  insect  pests  and  weed  seeds. 

cies). 

Swallows  (six  species).  Eat  insect  pests 

Vireos  (six  species).  Eat  insect  pests. 

Warblers  (about  forty  species).  Eat  insect  pests. 

Woodpeckers  (nine  species).  Eat  insect  pests. 

House  wren.  Eats  insect  pests. 

Taking  one  hundred  species  of  birds  as  the  num- 
ber of  more  or  less  common  birds  that  might  be 
found  in  a  locality,  they  would  be  divided  approxi- 
mately as  follows:  — 

Injurious 4  per  cent 

Neutral 5    "     " 

Chiefly  beneficial 13    "      " 

Almost  wholly  beneficial 78    u      " 

Or,  to  state  the  matter  still  more  briefly,  four  per 
cent  do  more  harm  than  good,  and  ninety-one  per 
cent  do  more  good  than  harm;  that  is,  there  are 
about  twenty-two  times  as  many  species  of  bene- 
ficial birds  as  there  are  species  of  harmful  birds. 

So  that  when  one  comes  to  consider  the  total 
amount  of  harm  done  by  birds  under  all  conditions, 
and  the  total  amount  of  good  done  under  all  con- 
ditions, and  when  to  the  economic  value  is  added 
the  great  aesthetic  value,  we  find  that  the  amount 
of  harm  done  is  relatively  insignificant,  while  the 


114  BIRD  FRIENDS 

amount  of  good  done  is  of  such  tremendous  impor- 
tance that  the  birds  stand  out  as  one  of  man's 
greatest  friends,  both  in  adding  to  the  pleasure  of 
living  and  in  aiding  man  to  raise  those  crops  on 
which  his  very  existence  depends. 

Mr.  Frank  M.  Chapman,  the  well-known  bird 
authority,  writes  in  his  "Handbook  of  Birds":  - 

The  more  we  learn  of  the  food  habits  of  birds,  the  greater 
becomes  the  realization  of  our  indebtedness  to  them,  and 
economic  ornithologists  now  agree  that,  without  the  serv- 
ices rendered  by  birds,  the  ravages  of  the  animals  they 
prey  upon  would  render  the  earth  uninhabitable. 

Mr.  H.  W.  Henshaw,  chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Bio- 
logical Survey,  writes  in  an  article  published  in  the 
"  National  Geographic  Magazine  " :  - 

What  would  happen  were  birds  exterminated  no  one 
can  foretell  with  absolute  certainty,  but  it  is  more  than 
likely  —  nay,  it  is  almost  certain  that  within  a  limited 
time  not  only  would  successful  agriculture  become  im- 
possible, but  the  destruction  of  the  greater  part  of  vege- 
tation would  follow.  It  is  believed  that  a  permanent 
reduction  in  the  numbers  of  our  birds,  even  if  no  species 
are  exterminated,  will  inevitably  be  followed  by  disas- 
trous consequences. 

The  food  habits  of  a  few  common  birds  are  briefly 
summarized  in  the  following  table,  which  is  based 
on  the  reports  of  the  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey. 
In  putting  down  the  amount  of  grain  eaten,  the  per 
cent  of  waste  grain  has  been  subtracted  from  the 
total  per  cent  of  grain  eaten,  thus  leaving  only 


STRIKING  THE  BALANCE 


115 


that  portion  which  can  be  considered  to  the  bird's 
discredit.  The  hawks  and  owls  are  not  given  here, 
as  a  table  for  them  has  been  given  in  Chapter  IX. 
The  figures  represent  the  per  cent  of  the  total  food 
for  the  year  that  any  item  forms. 

TABLE  OF  FOOD  OF  A  FEW  COMMON  BIRDS 


Name  of  bird 

To  bird't  credit 

To  bird's  discredit 

|l| 

11] 

11^ 

ai| 

Cultivated 
fruit 
(per  cent) 

1| 

Beneficial 
insects 
(per  cent) 

Total  debit 
(per  cent) 

Crow-blackbird  
Red-winged       black- 
bird 

19 

20 
47 
10 
24 
12 
10 
20 
16 
88 

55 
70 
52 

45 
19 

17 
50 
15 
56 
58 
56 
51 
S3 
28 

SO 
18 

22 
S3 
88 
69 

72 

21 
69 

4 

57 

50 
36 

60 
64 

16 
62 

64 

7 

53 
24 
40 
50 
42 

23 

77 
47 
60 
60 
12 
10 
80 
16 
88 
64 
55 
70 
52 

61 
19 
79 
50 
79 
63 
58 
56 
51 
33 
81 
24 
70 
68 
64 
33 
38 
69 
72 

21 
69 

3 

if 

13 

'4 

'2 

's 

*8 

4 

8 

22 

7 

"5 
4 

's 

12 

's 

1 

2 
9 
4 

'2 
3 

*2 
74 
4 
2 
6 
3 

'i 
i 

4 

6 

5 

9 

'2 
3 

'k 

'k 
3 
13 

5 
4 

13 

ii 

ii 

10 

6 

1 

*4 
2 
2 
8 
2 
2 
1 

9 

$ 

31 

12 
9 
5 
6 
22 
IS 
8 
18 

's 

3 
S 
IS 

7 
15 
4 
IS 
2 
15 

ii 

10 
14 
S 

74 
8 
4 
8 
19 
6 
3 
« 

10 
6 

Bluebird  
Bob-white  

Cardinal  
Catbird 

Cedar-bird  
Cowbird                  .    . 

Crow     

Mourning  dove  
Flicker                

Crested  flycatcher.  .  . 
Least  flycatcher  
Rose-breasted    gros- 
beak        

Blue  jay  

Kingbird 

Horned  lark  
Meadowlark  
Baltimore  oriole  
Wood  pewee 

Phoebe  
Robin 

Chipping  sparrow  .  .  . 
English  sparrow  
Field  sparrow  

Vesper  sparrow  
Brown  thrasher  
Wood  thrush  
Downy  woodpecker.  . 
Hairy  woodpecker.  .  . 
Red-headed       wood- 
pecker   
House  wren  

CHAPTER  XII 

CHANGES   IN   THE  NUMBERS   OF  BIRDS 

THERE  are  certain  natural  agencies  which  tend 
to  keep  birds  in  check  and  prevent  their  too  great 
increase,  and  these  agencies  are  necessary  to  pre- 
serve the  balance  of  nature,  else  birds  might  be- 
come so  numerous  as  to  be  harmful.  Since  the 
white  man  came  to  this  country  he  has  been  re- 
sponsible both  directly  and  indirectly  for  other 
agencies  tending  to  check  bird  life.  The  question 
naturally  arises  as  to  whether  all  these  causes  com- 
bined are  tending  to  reduce  bird  life  to  such  a  mini- 
mum that  extermination  of  certain  species  is  threat- 
ened, or  their  reduction  to  such  small  numbers  that 
they  are  no  longer  able  to  keep  insects  in  check. 
We  will  first  investigate  the  question  as  to  whether 
the  birds  have  decreased  in  numbers,  either  as  re- 
gards the  number  of  species  or  the  number  of  in- 
dividuals. 

Extinct  birds.  Within  the  past  sixty-five  years 
several  species  of  birds,  which  were  formerly  found 
in  some  portion  of  the  United  States,  have  become 
extinct,  and  the  last  stages  of  the  extermination  of 
two  species  are  being  enacted  at  the  present  time. 
Two  species,  the  great  auk,  and  the  Labrador  duck, 


CHANGES  IN  THE  NUMBERS  OF  BIRDS    117 


are  certainly  extinct;  one  species,  the  passenger 
pigeon,  is  probably  extinct;  and  one  species,  the 
Eskimo  curlew,  is  nearly  if  not  already  extinct.  In 
the  case  of  three  of  these  species  it  is  known  that 
destruction  by  man  was  the  cause  of  the  extermina- 
tion. Following  is  the  list:  — 


Name  of  bird 

Dale  of  last 
one  seen 

Where  found  formerly 

Great  auk  (certainly  ex- 
tinct)   

1853 

Northern  North  America. 

Labrador  duck  (certainly 
extinct)  

1875 

Northern  Europe. 
Northern  Atlantic  Coast. 

Passenger  pigeon  (prob- 
ably extinct)  

1908 

Canada  and  Northern 

Eskimo  curlew  (nearly  ex- 
tinct) .  . 

1913 

United  States 
Atlantic  Coast  of  North 

America. 

Besides  these,  five  other  species  of  birds,  for- 
merly found  in  the  West  Indies  and  one  species 
found  in  the  Bering  Islands,  have  become  extinct. 
Little  is  known  of  their  history  or  of  the  cause  of 
their  extermination. 

The  passenger  pigeon.  The  passenger  pigeon  was 
formerly  found  widely  distributed  in  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  in  such 
enormous  numbers  that  it  is  difficult  to  appreciate 
the  meaning  of  the  records  which  were  kept  by 
men  of  that  time.  They  passed  in  flocks  which 
darkened  the  sun  and  required  hours  to  pass  over. 


118  BIRD  FRIENDS 

About  a  hundred  years  ago  Alexander  Wilson  re- 
corded a  flight  of  pigeons  which  he  estimated  to  be 
one  mile  wide  and  240  miles  long.  Judged  from  the 
time  it  took  to  pass  over,  which  was  four  hours,  he 
estimated  that  this  flock  contained  over  £,000,000- 
000  birds.  These  pigeons  nested  together  in  large 
colonies  with  many  nests  in  a  single  tree.  Audubon 
records  a  breeding-place  several  miles  in  breadth 
and  forty  miles  in  extent. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  last  century  the  birds 
decreased  very  noticeably  in  numbers  and  by  the 
middle  of  the  century  this  decrease  was  being  no- 
ticed by  bird-students,  although  enormous  flocks 
were  seen  occasionally  at  this  time,  and  even  for 
twenty  years  later  in  certain  States.  The  last  large 
nesting-place  was  recorded  in  Michigan,  in  1878, 
covering  a  space  of  100,000  acres.  But  from  this 
time  on,  the  records  of  this  bird  became  fewer  and 
fewer,  and  the  last  authentic  record  was  in  1908. 
A  single  bird  was  kept  in  captivity  in  the  Cincin- 
nati Zoological  Garden  for  several  years  after  this. 
This  bird,  believed  to  be  the  last  of  its  race,  died  on 
September  1, 1914.  Many  efforts  have  been  made  in 
recent  years  to  find  the  passenger  pigeon  and  prizes 
offered,  but  without  avail,  so  that  we  are  driven  to 
the  conclusion  that  there  is  not  now  left  a  single  liv- 
ing bird  of  a  species  which  was,  within  the  memory 
of  men  now  living,  the  most  abundant  species  of 
bird  in  this  country. 


CHANGES  IN  THE  NUMBERS  OF  BIRDS     119 

The  cause  of  this  shameful  extermination  is  well 
known.  It  was  the  capture  of  birds  for  sale  in  the 
market  as  food.  It  was  the  general  custom  during 
the  migration  season,  when  these  enormous  flocks 
appeared,  for  people  to  turn  out  and  kill  pigeons. 
Some  hunters  made  it  a  business  to  follow  them 
from  place  to  place  to  secure  them  for  market.  In 
the  days  of  their  abundance  they  nested  in  large 
colonies  in  areas  forty  miles  long  and  three  or  four 
miles  wide.  Great  numbers  of  men,  women,  and 
children,  armed  with  guns,  clubs,  and  nets,  came  to 
these  nesting-places  and  massacred  both  old  and 
young  birds  during  the  entire  night.  The  young  in 
the  nest  were  considered  great  delicacies.  The  birds 
were  so  numerous  that  they  were  easily  killed  in 
enormous  numbers.  Sometimes  a  single  shot  would 
kill  dozens  of  birds. 

They  were  also  caught  in  nets  and  several  hun- 
dred were  so  caught  at  one  time.  Sometimes  a  single 
hunter  killed  as  many  as  a  thousand  pigeons  in  a 
day.  They  were  hunted  both  day  and  night  and 
were  sent  to  market,  where  they  were  sold  for 
twelve  to  fifty  cents  a  dozen.  In  1874,  from  a  nest- 
ing-place in  Michigan,  one  hundred  barrels  were 
shipped  daily  for  thirty  days,  or  about  a  million 
and  a  half  birds.  In  another  year  about  fourteen 
million  birds  were  sent  to  market.  In  1881,  in  an- 
other part  of  the  same  State,  five  hundred  men  were 
netting  pigeons  and  took  about  ten  million  birds. 


120  BIRD  FRIENDS 

With  such  figures  as  these  at  hand  it  is  easy  to 
understand  how  the  passenger  pigeon  became  ex- 
terminated. The  economic  status  of  this  species  is 
not  known,  but  the  sad  fate  of  the  bird  shows  that 
any  wild  bird  is  in  danger  of  extermination  when  it 
is  hunted  for  commercial  purposes. 

The  Eskimo  curlew.  The  Eskimo  curlew  is  an- 
other example  of  an  abundant  bird  rendered  nearly 
extinct  through  market  demand.  It  was  to  be  found 
on  the  Atlantic  Coast  in  enormous  flocks  up  to 
about  fifty  years  ago.  Since  that  time  the  bird  has 
gradually  disappeared,  till  now  it  is  seldom  seen. 
A  few  have  been  taken  in  the  last  three  years,  but 
it  seems  only  a  matter  of  a  few  years  till  it  becomes 
absolutely  extinct.  The  cause  is  the  same  as  for 
the  passenger  pigeon,  continued  and  unrestricted 
shooting  to  meet  the  market  demand. 

Species  in  danger  of  extermination.  Other  birds 
have  been  decreasing  in  numbers  at  such  a  rate 
that  they  are  threatened  with  extinction  unless 
some  radical  measures  are  taken  to  preserve  those 
that  are  still  left.  Following  are  some  of  the  birds 
which  seem  to  be  most  in  danger  of  extermina- 
tion: Carolina  paroquet,  whooping  crane,  trumpeter 
swan,  snowy  heron,  American  egret,  woodcock,  and 
many  shore-birds,  including  the  golden  plover,  pec- 
toral sandpiper,  knot,  upland  plover,  willet,  and 
dowitcher. 

Decrease  of  game-birds.  There  is  general  agree- 


CHANGES  IN  THE  NUMBERS  OF  BIRDS     121 

ment  among  all  bird-students  that  there  has  been 
a  very  marked  decrease  among  the  game-birds,  wild 
fowl,  and  shore-birds  during  the  last  twenty-five 
years,  in  some  cases  threatening  extinction,  as  men- 
tioned in  the  previous  paragraph.  In  1901,  Mr. 
W.  T.  Hornaday  sent  a  questionnaire  to  bird-stu- 
dents in  all  parts  of  the  United  States  asking  their 
opinion  regarding  the  decrease  in  birds  in  their  lo- 
calities during  the  past  fifteen  years.  One  hundred 
and  ninety  reports  were  received.  Almost  without 
exception,  these  all  agreed  that  there  had  been  a  very 
marked  decrease  in  the  number  of  game-birds,  some 
estimating  the  decrease  as  high  as  ninety  per  cent. 
Mr.  E.  H.  Forbush,  in  1907,  made  a  detailed 
study  of  the  conditions  in  the  State  of  Massachu- 
setts. A  list  of  fifty-eight  species  of  game-birds, 
wild  fowl,  and  shore-birds  was  sent  to  about  five 
hundred  gunners  and  ornithologists  in  the  State, 
and  these  were  asked  to  report  on  the  increase  or 
decrease  of  each  species.  In  the  case  of  every  spe- 
cies, some  observers  reported  a  decrease,  while 
there  were  four  species  for  which  every  one  reported 
a  decrease.  For  every  one  of  the  fifty-eight  species, 
more  observers  reported  a  decrease  than  reported  an 
increase.  Usually  the  numbers  reporting  a  decrease 
were  much  larger  than  those  reporting  an  increase. 
Taking  all  the  birds  together,  the  average  number 
of  observers  reporting  an  increase  for  each  bird  was 
ten,  while  the  average  number  reporting  a  decrease 


128  BIRD  FRIENDS 

was  sixty-four,  so  that  for  one  region  of  the  State 
where  a  bird  had  increased,  there  were  six  regions 
where  it  had  decreased.  For  twenty  species  ten 
times  as  many  observers  reported  the  birds  to  be 
decreasing  as  to  be  increasing.  The  per  cent  of  de- 
crease reported  ranged  from  fifty  to  seventy-five; 
the  per  cent  of  increase  from  twenty-five  to  fifty. 

Have  the  song-birds  decreased?  These  instances 
are  enough  to  prove  conclusively  that  the  game- 
birds,  wild  fowl,  and  shore-birds  have  decreased 
very  markedly.  We  may  next  inquire  if  this  is  also 
true  of  the  common  song-birds.  In  the  report  of 
Mr.  Hornaday  to  which  reference  has  already  been 
made  the  statement  is  made  that  birds  had  de- 
creased forty-six  per  cent  during  the  previous  fifteen 
years.  In  1904,  Mr.  E.  H.  Forbush  made  a  careful 
study  of  the  relative  abundance  of  song-birds  found 
in  Massachusetts.  Reports  were  received  from 
about  two  hundred  bird-students  to  whom  ques- 
tions had  been  sent  relative  to  the  abundance  of 
birds  compared  with  that  in  previous  years.  From 
these  reports  Mr.  Forbush  concludes  that  the  num- 
bers of  the  smaller  birds  have  remained  about  the 
same,  excepting  in  and  near  towns  and  cities,  where 
there  has  been  a  decrease.  A  decrease  in  herons, 
hawks,  and  owls  was  noted.  The  following  quotation 
is  taken  from  this  report:  - 

The  smaller  native  birds  fluctuate,  some  species  de- 
creasing in  some  localities  and  increasing  in  others,  but 


CHANGES  IN  THE  NUMBERS  OF  BIRDS     123 

apparently  holding  their  own  very  well,  in  general.  There 
may  be  a  slight  decrease  in  the  aggregate,  owing  to  the 
evident  diminution  of  many  species  in  and  near  cities, 
with  no  corresponding  increase  in  the  country.  There 
appears  to  be  no  general  and  noticeable  reduction  in  the 
rural  sections  except  where  the  birds  are  subjected  to  an 
unusual  amount  of  persecution.  On  the  whole,  the  bal- 
ance of  life  among  the  smaller  birds  seems  to  be  fairly 
maintained. 

Information  received  from  other  states  along  the 
Atlantic  seaboard  seems  to  indicate,  that,  as  here,  shore 
birds  and  game  birds  are  decreasing,  while  the  insectiv- 
orous birds  are,  with  some  exceptions,  holding  their  own. 

Comparing  the  conclusions  of  Messrs.  Hornaday 
and  Forbush  with  reference  to  the  song-birds,  we 
may  note,  first,  that  Mr.  Hornaday's  figures  repre- 
sent the  decrease  for  all  birds,  game-birds  included, 
while  Mr.  Forbush  is  speaking  here  of  song-birds 
only;  and  furthermore,  it  is  probable  that  some  of 
those  who  answered  Mr.  Hornaday's  questions  had 
the  game-birds  specially  in  mind.  So  far  as  there 
is  any  discrepancy  between  these  reports,  doubt- 
less Mr.  Forbush's  report  is  more  nearly  correct. 
His  report  was  based  on  the  observations  of  two 
hundred  people  from  many  parts  of  the  State, 
while  Mr.  Hornaday's  report,  as  far  as  Massachu- 
setts is  concerned,  was  based  on  the  observations 
of  only  eleven  people,  more  than  half  of  whom 
lived  in  or  near  cities. 

"  Bird-Lore's  "  Christmas  census.  The  readers 
of  "  Bird-Lore  "  have  been  making  a  Christmas 


124  BIRD  FRIENDS 

census  of  birds  for  about  fifteen  years.  These  re- 
cords have  now  been  kept  long  enough  to  throw 
some  light  on  the  question  as  to  whether  the  winter 
birds  have  changed  in  numbers.  In  "  Bird-Lore  " 
for  January-February,  1914,  was  published  a  sum- 
mary of  the  reports  from  1901  to  1911.  Graphs  are 
shown  representing  the  abundance  of  ten  species 
for  the  different  years.  The  graphs  for  four  species 
are  very  regular  and  show  practically  no  change 
during  the  ten  years.  The  graphs  for  five  species 
are  quite  irregular,  showing  fluctuations  from  year 
to  year,  but  on  the  average  there  is  no  tendency 
toward  any  regular  change,  either  an  increase  or  a 
decrease. 

Mr.  Frank  L.  Burns  made  a  bird-census  during 
the  nesting-seasons  of  1899-1901  of  the  birds  found 
on  a  640-acre  farm  in  Berwyn,  Pennsylvania.  Thir- 
teen years  later,  in  1914,  he  made  another  census 
of  the  same  area.  In  the  first  census  he  found  sixty- 
two  species  represented  by  1388  individuals;  in 
the  last  census  he  found  sixty  species  represented 
by  1424  individuals.  This  would  seem  to  indicate 
that  on  the  whole  birds  were  holding  their  own  on 
this  area.  Mr.  Burns  writes,  "  The  tendency  seems 
to  be  toward  a  less  varied  fauna  and  increase  of 
individuals  of  the  more  adaptive  species." 

United  States  census  of  birds.  The  Bureau  of 
Biological  Survey  has  begun  taking  a  series  of  cen- 
suses which  will  eventually  answer  the  question  as 


CHANGES  IN  THE  NUMBERS  OF  BIRDS     125 

to  whether  birds  are  changing  in  numbers.  The 
first  census  was  taken  in  1914.  During  the  nesting- 
season  of  that  year  a  census  was  taken  by  several 
hundred  observers  on  farms  situated  in  different 
parts  of  the  United  States,  but  chiefly  in  the  north- 
eastern section.  These  reports  showed  that  there 
was  an  average  of  one  pair  of  birds  to  the  acre.  At 
this  rate  there  would  be  about  350,000,000  pairs  of 
adult  birds  on  the  farms  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River.  The  following  quotation  is  taken  from  a  cir- 
cular describing  the  census :  — 

That  the  present  bird  population  is  much  less  than  it 
ought  to  be,  and  much  less  than  it  would  be  if  birds  were 
given  proper  protection  and  encouragement,  is  the  most 
important  deduction  from  this  preliminary  census.  An 
approximate  average  of  one  pair  of  birds  to  each  acre  of 
land  was  found,  but  individual  censuses  showed  that  it 
is  possible,  under  strictly  farm  conditions,  very  largely 
to  increase  this  number.  Near  Wellington,  Virginia,  a 
tract  of  forty-nine  acres  of  a  dairy  farm,  of  rather  less 
than  the  average  of  ploughed  ground,  supported  a  bird 
population  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-seven  pairs,  or  three 
pairs  to  the  acre.  On  a  forty-acre  farm  in  Rantoul,  Kan- 
sas, after  fourteen  years  of  bird  protection  and  encourage- 
ment, there  were  found  one  hundred  and  fifty-seven  pairs 
of  birds,  or  about  four  pairs  of  birds  to  the  acre. 

It  is  evident  from  the  foregoing  statement  that  double 
the  present  bird  population  is  easily  obtainable,  while 
a  threefold  increase  is  well  within  the  possibilities. 

It  was  noticeable  that  the  blocks  most  thickly  in- 
habited by  people  were  also  most  fully  occupied  by 
breeding  birds.  This  is  a  striking  refutation  of  the  wide- 
spread belief  that  human  beings  and  birds  are  naturally 


126  BIRD  FRIENDS 

antagonistic,  and  that  as  the  population  of  the  United 
States  increases  the  number  of  birds  must  necessarily 
decrease. 

On  the  author's  place  of  three  acres,  situated  on 
the  edge  of  a  city  of  ten  thousand  population,  there 
were  fifteen  pairs  of  birds  representing  seven  species, 
nesting  during  1914.  One  village  of  twenty-three 
acres  showed  an  average  of  seventeen  pairs  of  birds 
per  acre.  One  man  in  Chevy  Chase,  Maryland, 
reported  thirteen  pairs  nesting  in  a  half -acre  yard. 
The  record  for  the  largest  number  of  birds  comes 
from  a  farm  in  Maryland,  where  fifty-nine  pairs  of 
birds  were  found  nesting  on  a  single  acre. 

In  this  census  the  robin  was  found  to  be  the  most 
abundant  bird,  with  six  pairs  per  farm  of  fifty- 
eight  acres,  and  the  English  sparrow  next,  with 
five  pairs  per  farm.  For  every  one  hundred  robins 
reported  there  were  eighty-three  English  sparrows, 
forty-nine  catbirds,  thirty-seven  brown  thrashers, 
twenty-eight  house  wrens,  twenty-seven  kingbirds, 
and  twenty-six  bluebirds. 

It  may  be  considered,  then,  that  the  following 
statements  represent  the  approximate  truth  at  the 
present  time  relative  to  the  abundance  of  birds:  (1) 
some  birds  have  become  extinct;  (2)  other  birds  are 
threatened  with  extinction;  (3)  the  game-birds,  wild 
fowl,  shore-birds,  and  egrets  have  greatly  decreased 
in  numbers  in  recent  years;  (4)  hawks  and  owls 
have  decreased  to  some  extent;  (5)  song-birds  have 


CHANGES  IN  THE  NUMBERS  OF  BIRDS 

decreased  in  the  neighborhood  of  cities;  (6)  in  the 
country  there  has  been  no  appreciable  change  in 
the  numbers  of  song-birds;  (7)  the  numbers  of  these 
birds  could  be  considerably  increased  with  advan- 
tage to  man  without  disturbing  nature's  balance. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE   NATURAL   ENEMIES   OF   BIRDS 

THE  facts  presented  in  the  preceding  chapter  nat- 
urally lead  one  to  inquire  what  are  the  forces  that 
have  caused  the  great  decrease  of  some  birds,  and 
that  are  holding  our  song-birds  in  check  and  pre- 
venting their  increase.  In  the  report  by  Mr.  For- 
bush  to  which  reference  has  already  been  made 
statistics  were  gathered  regarding  the  causes  of  the 
decrease  of  birds. 

The  following  is  taken  from  his  report  for  the 
State  of  Massachusetts,  with  a  few  of  the  minor 
causes  omitted :  — 

MAN  THE  EXTERMINATOR 

The  reports  on  the  diminution  of  bird  life,  as  caused 
directly  or  indirectly  by  man,  may  be  tabulated  as  fol- 
lows to  show  the  relative  importance  of  each  cause :  — 

Cause  Number  of  observers 

reporting  (out  of  217} 

Sportsmen,  or  (so-called  "sportsmen") 82 

Italians  and  other  foreigners 70 

Cutting  off  timber  and  shrubbery 62 

Market  hunters 57 

Bird  shooters  and  trappers 32 

Egg  collectors,  boys  and  others 32 

Milliners'  hunters 18 

Draining  marshes  and  meadows 17 

Gun  clubs  and  hunting  contests 16 


THE  NATURAL  ENEMIES  OF  BIRDS    129 

The  natural  enemies  of  birds,  noted  as  harmful  by 
the  observers  who  have  contributed  to  this  portion  of 
the  report,  may  be  arranged  in  the  following  order,  with 
reference  to  the  number  reporting  each :  — 

Natural  enemy  Number  of  ob- 

servers reporting 

Cats 82 

Foxes 58 

Crows 54 

Squirrels 42 

English  sparrows 39 

Hawks 34 

Jays 26 

Owls 22 

The  elements 21 

Weasels 17 

The  enemies  of  birds  may  be  arranged  as  follows 
with  special  reference  to  the  part  that  man  has 
played  in  their  destruction:  — 

I.  Natural  enemies. 

1.  Four-footed  enemies. 

A.  Squirrels. 

B.  Foxes,  weasels,  etc. 

2.  Feathered  enemies. 

A.  Crow,  blue  jay,  crow  blackbird. 

B.  Hawks  and  owls. 

3.  The  elements. 
II.  Man  as  an  enemy. 

1.  Agencies  for  which  man  is  indirectly  responsible. 

A.  The  cat. 

B.  The  English  sparrow. 

2.  Agencies  for  which  man  is  directly  responsible. 

A.  Unavoidable  destruction. 

a.  Cutting  off  timber  and  shrubbery. 

b.  Draining  marshes. 

c.  Lighthouses. 

d.  Wires  (telegraph,  telephone,  trolley,  elec- 

tric lighting). 


130  BIRD  FRIENDS 

B.  Needless  destruction. 

a.  Shooting  for  sport. 

b.  Market  hunters. 

c.  Milliners'  hunters. 

d.  Egg-collecting. 

e.  Shooting  song-birds  for  food. 

Among  the  agencies  destructive  to  bird  life  are 
natural  enemies  which  were  operative  before  the 
advent  of  the  white  man,  and  most  of  which  are 
still  in  existence,  although  many  have  been  de- 
stroyed by  man. 

Squirrels.  Among  the  squirrels  the  red  squirrel 
is  one  of  the  worst  offenders.  When  it  is  common, 
it  is  a  serious  enemy  of  small  birds.  It  eats  both 
eggs  and  young  birds.  It  is  able  to  reach  almost 
any  bird's  nest  and  the  small  birds  can  do  little  to 
protect  themselves  from  it.  When  the  red  squirrels 
are  present  in  excessive  numbers,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  reduce  their  numbers  to  protect  the  birds. 
The  gray  squirrel  and  chipmunk  occasionally  feed 
on  young  birds,  but  not  so  commonly  as  does  the 
red  squirrel. 

Other  four-footed  enemies.  Other  animals  that 
may  at  times  destroy  eggs  and  young  birds  are 
foxes,  weasels,  minks,  and  skunks.  Probably  none 
of  these,  except  when  numerous,  is  to  be  consid- 
ered a  serious  enemy  of  the  song-birds.  As  these 
animals  are  rare  throughout  many  portions  of  the 
United  States,  they  do  not  usually  do  much  dam- 
age. 


THE  NATURAL  ENEMIES  OF  BIRDS    131 

Feathered  enemies.  There  is  strong  evidence 
that  the  crow,  blue  jay,  and  crow  blackbird  at 
times  do  much  damage,  especially  the  crow,  in  de- 
stroying eggs  and  the  young  of  small  birds.  These 
birds  have  been  repeatedly  observed  to  attack  the 
nests  of  other  birds,  and  some  students  consider 
the  crow  the  worst  natural  enemy  of  small  birds. 

An  examination  of  eleven  hundred  stomachs  of 
crows,  made  by  the  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey, 
showed  that  fifty,  or  about  five  per  cent,  had  fed 
on  wild  birds  or  their  eggs.  In  the  same  bulletin  is 
the  following  reference  to  the  egg-eating  habit  of 
the  blue  jay :  "  As  this  trait  of  the  jay  appears  to  be 
most  pronounced  during  its  own  breeding  season,  it 
is  quite  possible  for  many  birds  which  have  suffered 
from  his  boldness  early  in  the  season  to  raise  an- 
other brood  unmolested."  This  egg-destroying 
habit  is  probably  not  true  of  all  crows  and  jays, 
but  is  limited  to  a  certain  number  of  individuals. 

Among  the  hawks  are  found  some  of  the  worst 
natural  enemies  of  birds,  the  chief  offenders  being 
the  pigeon  hawk,  Cooper's  hawk,  and  sharp-shinned 
hawk.  They  attack  the  adult  birds,  and  our  small 
insectivorous  birds  make  up  over  hah*  of  the  food 
of  the  sharp-shinned  hawk. 

The  owls  occasionally  feed  on  small  birds,  but 
not  nearly  so  frequently  as  hawks.  They  are  not  to 
be  considered  serious  enemies  of  the  small  birds. 
Shrikes  feed  to  some  extent  on  small  birds,  which 


132  BIRD  FRIENDS 

comprise  about  one  fourth  of  their  food.  Among 
these,  however,  are  included  a  good  many  English 
sparrows. 

The  elements.  Birds  which  spend  the  winter  in 
the  northern  United  States  may  suffer  severely 
from  the  extreme  cold  and  from  lack  of  food  on 
account  of  the  deep  snows  and  the  coating  of  ice 
on  trees  that  cover  their  food-supply.  Many  birds 
perish  every  severe  winter.  The  lack  of  food  is  one 
of  the  chief  reasons  for  this  mortality.  With  plenty 
of  food  birds  can  withstand  very  low  temperatures, 
but  when  they  are  only  half  fed,  they  easily  suc- 
cumb to  the  cold. 

Mortality  during  winter.  In  Massachusetts,  Mr. 
Forbush  made  a  study  of  this  matter  during  the 
winter  of  1903  to  1904  from  reports  received  from 
seventy-five  correspondents.  These  reports  showed 
that  during  the  first  half  of  the  winter,  birds  were 
present  in  about  their  usual  number,  but  as  the 
severity  of  the  weather  increased,  the  number  of 
birds  began  to  decrease,  till  by  the  end  of  the  winter 
a  very  noticeable  mortality  was  universally  reported, 
and  many  birds  were  found  dying  of  cold  and 
hunger;  and  it  was  the  opinion  of  those  best  fitted 
to  judge  that  most  of  the  birds  which  usually  win- 
tered there  were  either  starved  or  frozen. 

Among  the  greatest  sufferers  were  the  bob-white, 
ruffed  grouse,  meadowlark,  and  flicker.  In  some 
localities  the  bob-white  was  apparently  entirely 


THE  NATURAL  ENEMIES  OF  BIRDS     133 

exterminated,  Mr.  Forbush  estimating  that  it  had 
been  reduced  at  least  ninety-five  per  cent. 

During  the  winter  of  1911-12,  which  was  excep- 
tionally severe,  many  reports  received  from  por- 
tions of  the  northeastern  United  States  indicated 
that  many  birds  perished.  The  sleet  and  snow  cov- 
ered their  food  so  that  the  birds  fell  easy  victims 
to  the  low  temperatures.  Water-fowl  perished  by 
the  thousands  on  the  Delaware  River.  In  Iowa  it 
was  estimated  that  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the 
bob-whites  and  prairie  chickens  perished.  In  New 
Jersey  it  was  reported  that  grouse  and  quail  were 
dying  from  hunger  on  account  of  a  coating  of  ice 
beneath  the  snow,  through  which  the  birds  could 
not  dig  holes  for  food.  Similar  reports  came  from 
Kansas.  The  marshes  and  coves  by  the  sea,  where 
water-birds  usually  stay,  froze  so  that  the  birds 
were  not  able  to  secure  food. 

In  the  late  winter  of  1895,  bluebirds  were  over- 
taken by  a  spell  of  cold  weather  hi  the  South,  as  a 
result  of  which  thousands  perished.  The  diminished 
number  of  bluebirds  was  very  noticeable  for  many 
years  afterward. 

Mortality  during  spring.  Dr.  T.  S.  Roberts  re- 
ports in  "  The  Auk  "  a  Lapland  longspur  tragedy 
that  occurred  in  southern  Minnesota  and  northern 
Iowa  in  March,  1904.  Apparently  a  great  host  of 
these  birds  were  migrating  to  their  northern  home 
on  the  night  in  question,  when  they  were  over- 


134  BIRD  FRIENDS 

taken  by  a  snowstorm,  and,  becoming  confused  by 
the  darkness  and  snow,  some  were  attracted  by  the 
lights  of  the  towns,  where  they  dashed  themselves 
to  the  ground  and  against  the  buildings  and  per- 
ished in  enormous  numbers.  Many  others,  laden 
with  the  heavy,  wet  snow,  were  evidently  unable  to 
continue  their  flight  and  fell  to  the  earth,  where 
they  were  stunned  or  killed.  The  next  morning  the 
ground  was  strewn  with  dead  birds.  On  two  lakes 
of  an  area  of  about  two  square  miles,  it  was  esti- 
mated that  a  million  birds  had  perished.  The 
total  area  in  which  this  tragedy  occurred  was  about 
fifteen  hundred  square  miles.  If  in  two  square 
miles  a  million  birds  perished,  it  is  difficult  to 
imagine  what  the  destruction  must  have  been 
throughout  the  whole  area. 

Unseasonable  storms,  especially  cold  rains  in 
the  spring,  destroy  a  great  many  birds.  The  early 
migrants  are  the  birds  most  apt  to  be  affected  by 
these  storms. 

During  the  nesting-period,  prolonged  seasons  of 
cold,  rainy  weather  may  render  it  difficult  for  the 
birds  to  find  food  either  for  themselves  or  their 
young,  and  the  young  may  be  chilled  hi  the  nest. 
In  1903  the  numbers  of  martins  were  reduced  very 
noticeably  by  this  means  in  some  sections  of  the 
country.  In  portions  of  New  England  they  were 
almost  wiped  out. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

BIRD  ENEMIES  INTRODUCED  BY  MAN:  THE 
CAT  AND  THE  ENGLISH  SPARROW 

COMING  now  to  the  part  that  man  has  played 
in  the  destruction  of  bird  life,  we  will  first  consider 
those  agencies  for  which  he  is  indirectly  responsible, 
namely,  the  cat  and  the  English  sparrow.  The  cat 
was  brought  to  this  country  as  a  pet  by  the  white 
man,  and  is  now  often  so  poorly  fed  and  cared  for, 
and  even  entirely  deserted  by  people,  that  man 
must  be  held  largely  accountable  for  the  harm  that 
cats  do.  In  a  similar  way  man  is  responsible  for  the 
English  sparrow,  because  it  was  introduced  by  him 
into  this  country  in  1851  and  at  later  dates,  and 
has  now  become  one  of  the  worst  enemies  of  cer- 
tain song-birds. 

The  Cat 

Method  of  doing  harm.  There  is  quite  general 
agreement  among  bird-students  that  cats  are  the 
worst  enemy  of  the  song-birds.  The  chief  harm  is 
done  during  the  nesting-season.  While  the  young 
are  in  the  nest,  they  are  entirely  helpless  and  un- 
able to  defend  themselves  against  the  cat.  Not  only 
does  the  cat  find  nests  on  the  ground,  but  it  can 


1S6  BIRD  FRIENDS 

easily  climb  trees  and  reach  the  nests  there,  so 
that  there  are  few  places  where  birds  build  their 
nests  that  are  not  accessible  to  the  cat.  And  even 
after  the  young  leave  the  nest,  many  are  caught 
when  learning  to  fly.  Cats  destroy  also  a  great 
many  adult  birds.  When  the  parent  birds  are  de- 
fending their  young  against  the  attacks  of  the  cat, 
they  often  come  within  reach  of  the  cat's  paws;  and 
even  when  birds  are  feeding  on  the  ground,  they 
may  be  pounced  upon  by  cats  that  are  lurking  near, 
hidden  in  some  shrub  or  tuft  of  grass.  And  again, 
when  birds  are  bathing,  they  are  not  able  to  fly  and 
so  may  be  easily  caught. 

It  seems  to  be  a  nearly  universal  instinct  among 
cats  to  delight  in  catching  birds.  Even  when  cats 
are  not  hungry,  they  catch  more  birds  than  they 
can  eat,  torturing  them  in  the  most  sickening  fash- 
ion. Mr.  Neil  W.  Ladd,  of  Greenwich,  Connecti- 
cut, reports  that  his  household  Angora  cat,  though 
loaded  with  bells,  brought  to  their  veranda  thirty- 
two  birds  during  one  nesting-season  and  twenty- 
eight  birds  during  the  next  season,  none  of  which 
it  ate. 

The  cat  at  best  is  only  partially  domesticated,  and, 
when  deserted,  as  is  so  often  the  case  by  thought- 
less people,  it  runs  wild  and  lives  almost  entirely 
on  birds  during  the  season  when  they  can  be  ob- 
tained. There  are  many  thousands  of  these  stray, 
vagrant  cats  thus  devastating  our  bird  life,  aided 


CAT   WITH    ROBIN 


A   CAT   THAT   DOES    NOT   KILL   BIRDS 

He  is  kept  in  or  caged  during  the  night,  fed  regularly,  and  given  a 

good  breakfast  before  his  morning  liberty 


BIRD  ENEMIES  INTRODUCED  BY  MAN    137 

by  many  other  thousands  of  pet  cats,  which  hunt 
birds,  not  so  much  from  hunger  as  from  a  natural 
instinct  to  kill  birds. 

Most  people  do  not  realize  the  harm  done  by 
cats  because  they  work  quietly,  on  the  sly,  chiefly 
in  the  early  morning,  before  most  people  have 
arisen.  Mr.  Forbush's  investigations  showed  that 
about  ninety  per  cent  of  the  cats  are  allowed  to 
roam  at  night.  At  earliest  daybreak  they  attack 
the  young  birds  in  the  nest,  frequently  killing  also 
the  mother  bird  on  the  nest.  And  then,  too,  the 
nests  which  the  cats  attack  are  frequently  so  well 
hidden  that  a  person  who  is  not  specially  watching 
does  not  see  the  tragedies  that  are  being  enacted 
there. 

The  control  of  the  cat,  as  one  of  the  chief  enemies, 
if  not  the  chief  enemy,  of  bird  life,  is  one  of  the 
pressing  questions  to  be  solved  by  those  interested 
in  bird-protection.  In  order  that  the  harm  done  by 
cats  may  be  more  generally  appreciated,  below  is 
given  a  list  of  quotations  from  a  number  of  bird- 
students.  These  quotations  will  suffice  to  show  that 
the  views  expressed  in  these  pages  are  not  simply 
those  of  the  author  alone:  — 

The  most  important  problem  confronting  bird  pro- 
tectors to-day  is  the  devising  of  a  proper  means  for  the 
disposition  of  the  surplus  cat  population  of  this  country. 
(Frank  M.  Chapman,  Curator  of  Birds  in  the  American 
Museum  of  Natural  History  and  author  of  seve  -al  well- 
known  bird  books.) 


138  BIRD  FRIENDS 

The  cat  is  more  dangerous  to  birds  than  is  any  native 
mammal  that  roams  our  woods,  for  it  is  nocturnal,  a 
splendid  climber,  a  good  stalker,  a  strong  leaper,  and  is 
very  quick  and  active.  (E.  H.  Forbush,  State  Ornitholo- 
gist of  Massachusetts.) 

There  is  no  wild  bird  or  animal  in  the  United  States 
whose  destructive  inroads  on  our  bird  population  are 
in  any  sense  comparable  to  the  widespread  devastation 
created  by  the  domestic  cat.  (T.  Gilbert  Pearson,  secre- 
tary of  the  National  Association  of  Audubon  Societies.) 

The  cat  is  acknowledged  to  be  one  of  the  most  de- 
structive of  all  the  bird  enemies  and  is,  therefore,  an  ex- 
pensive luxury.  If  crops  are  worth  money,  the  birds  that 
save  them  from  pest  destruction  are  worth  money,  and 
the  cat  takes  money  out  of  your  pocket  every  time  it 
catches  a  bird.  As  birds  decrease  in  numbers,  insect  pests 
increase  and  eat  our  crops,  plants  and  trees.  (Charles 
H.  Pease,  secretary  of  the  Connecticut  Commission  of 
Fisheries  and  Game.) 

Field  naturalists  and  others  who  have  studied  condi- 
tions surrounding  our  native  birds,  agree  that  the  house 
cat  is  as  destructive  to  birds  as  all  other  natural  enemies 
combined.  (A.  K.  Fisher,  of  the  Bureau  of  Biological 
Survey.) 

Taking  into  account  bird  life  in  general,  the  cat  is  un- 
doubtedly the  most  destructive  mammal  we  have,  and 
the  aggregate  number  of  birds  annually  killed  by  them  is 
enormous.  (Henry  W.  Henshaw,  chief  of  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey.) 

In  such  thickly  settled  communities  as  our  northern 
States,  from  the  Atlantic  Coast  to  the  sandhills  of  Kan- 
sas and  Nebraska,  the  domestic  cat  is  probably  the  great- 
est four-footed  scourge  of  bird  life.  That  cats  destroy 
annually  in  the  United  States  several  millions  of  very 
valuable  birds,  seems  fairly  beyond  question.  (William 
T.  Hornaday,  Director  of  New  York  Zoological  Park.) 


BIRD  ENEMIES  INTRODUCED  BY  MAN    139 

John  Burroughs  says  that  cats  destroy  more 
birds  than  all  other  animals  combined. 

William  Dutcher,  president  of  the  National 
Association  of  Audubon  Societies,  considers  the  wild 
house  cat  one  of  the  greatest  causes  of  bird  destruc- 
tion known. 

Mr.  E.  H.  Forbush  found  that  nearly  a  hundred 
correspondents  scattered  through  all  the  counties 
of  Massachusetts  reported  the  cat  as  one  of  the 
greatest  enemies  of  birds,  a  larger  number  reporting 
this  than  any  other  enemy. 

M.  Raspail  in  France  watched  sixty-seven  nests 
for  one  season  and  found  that  forty-one  of  these 
were  destroyed.  Fifteen  of  these  were  robbed  by 
cats,  which  destroyed  more  nests  than  any  other 
single  enemy. 

The  destruction  of  birds  by  cats  means  a  direct 
economic  money  loss.  It  means  an  increase  of  in- 
sect pests.  This  increase  means  more  destruction 
of  crops,  which  means  smaller  yields  and  smaller 
financial  returns :  more  cats  —  fewer  birds  —  more 
insects  —  smaller  crops  —  less  money. 

Number  of  birds  killed  by  cats.  There  are  enough 
data  available  so  that  one  may  secure  an  approx- 
imate estimate  of  the  number  of  birds  killed  by 
cats  in  a  year. 

Mr.  A.  C.  Dyke  reports  a  pet  cat  that  was  well 
fed,  which  was  actually  seen  to  kill  fifty-eight  birds 
in  one  season,  including  the  young  in  five  nests. 


140  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Mr.  E.  H.  Forbush  estimates  that  a  mature  cat 
in  good  hunting-grounds  kills,  on  the  average,  fifty 
birds  a  year.  He  saw  a  cat  kill  all  the  young  in  six 
nests  and  two  parent  birds  in  a  day.  He  also  re- 
ports two  instances  where  more  than  ten  birds  were 
killed  by  a  cat  in  one  day,  and  another  where  seven 
were  killed. 

In  "Bird-Lore  "  for  March-April,  1915,  and  in  a 
bulletin  on  the  "  Domestic  Cat,"  Mr.  Forbush  gives 
some  interesting  results  of  his  investigations  regard- 
ing the  cat.  A  series  of  questions  was  sent  out  to  a 
number  of  people  in  Massachusetts,  and  answers 
received  from  more  than  four  hundred.  These 
showed  that  one  hundred  and  seven  species  of  birds 
killed  by  cats  had  been  identified  by  the  writers. 
Following  is  a  partial  list  of  the  birds  reported:  — 

Name  of  bird  killed                                                  Number  of  ob- 
servers reporting 

Robin 272 

Bluebird 75 

English  sparrow 72 

Chipping  sparrow 54 

Catbird 52 

Ruffed  grouse 46 

Song  sparrow 46 

Bob-white 44 

Barn  swallow 42 

Junco 34 

Blue  jay 25 

Chickadee 24 

Flicker 24 

Yellow  warbler 20 

House  wren 16 

Meadowlark 14 

Baltimore  oriole 13 

Hummingbird 10 


BIRD  ENEMIES  INTRODUCED  BY  MAN    141 

Numerous  correspondents  had  known  individual 
cats  to  kill  from  two  to  eight  birds  in  a  day,  though 
the  average  was  much  smaller.  In  several  cases  cats 
were  known  to  kill  almost  or  more  than  fifty  birds 
in  a  year. 

The  reports  showed  that  — 

226  cats  killed  624  birds  in  one  day,  an  average  per  day  of  2.7. 

32  cats  killed  239  birds  in  one  week,  an  average  per  week  of  7.9. 
15  cats  killed  307.  birds  in  one  month,  an  average  per  month  of  20.4. 
47  cats  killed  534  birds  in  one  year,  an  average  per  year  of  11.3. 

The  average  for  the  year  is  small  because  few 
persons  kept  careful  account  of  the  birds  killed 
during  a  whole  year,  while  others,  whose  cats  had 
been  "taught  not  to  kill  birds,"  reported  that  their 
cats  had  killed  only  one,  two,  or  three  birds  in  a  year. 

If  we  assume  that  these  cats  continued  to  kill 
birds  at  the  same  rate  for  one  month  and  average 
them  all,  taking  into  account  the  number  of  cats 
in  each  group,  the  average  for  a  month  is  62.  If  we 
give  the  four  groups  equal  consideration,  regard- 
less of  the  number  in  each  group,  the  average  num- 
ber killed  is  33.  The  average  of  the  third  group 
alone,  comprising  15  cats,  is  20.4.  And  if  finally 
we  average  these  three  averages,  the  result  is  38. 
In  order  to  make  a  conservative  estimate,  we  will 
take  the  lowest  of  the  four  averages,  20.4  as  the 
average  number  of  birds  killed  in  a  month  by  one 
cat.  It  is  fair  to  assume  that  a  cat  would  continue 
to  kill  birds  at  this  rate  during  at  least  one  month 


142  BIRD  FRIENDS 

in  the  height  of  the  nesting-season,  when  young 
birds  are  easily  caught,  and  when  most  of  the  harm 
is  done. 

Number  of  birds  killed  by  cats  in  Massachusetts. 
These  investigations  of  Mr.  Forbush  give  data  for 
forming  some  estimate  of  the  total  number  of  birds 
killed  each  year  by  cats  in  the  State  of  Massachu- 
setts. It  was  found  that  an  average  of  about  one 
cat  per  family  was  kept  in  towns  and  nearly  three 
cats  per  farm  in  the  country,  so  that  we  may  take 
two  cats  per  farm  as  a  fair  average.  There  are  in 
Massachusetts  37,000  farms  supporting  about  74- 
000  cats.  As  previously  shown,  the  average  num- 
ber of  birds  killed  by  one  cat  during  one  month  of 
the  nesting-season  was  20.4.  This  multiplied  by 
74,000  gives  a  total  of  1,509,600  birds,  probably 
mostly  young  birds,  killed  annually  by  cats  on  the 
farms  of  Massachusetts,  or,  in  round  numbers,  one 
and  a  half  millions. 

We  may  next  inquire  what  per  cent  of  the  total 
bird  population  this  number  comprises.  In  a  bird- 
census  conducted  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Biological  Survey,  it  was  found  that  there  was  an 
average  of  one  pair  of  nesting  birds  per  acre  on  the 
iarms  of  the  northeastern  United  States.  In  Massa- 
chusetts there  are  about  2,800,000  acres  of  farm- 
land, which,  in  accordance  with  the  above  census, 
support  2,800,000  pairs  of  birds.  Assuming  that 
each  pair  reared  two  young  birds  to  at  least  partial 


BIRD  ENEMIES  INTRODUCED  BY  MAN    143 

maturity  would  give  a  total  of  5,600,000  young 
birds  for  the  first  brood.  We  may  also  estimate  the 
second  brood  from  the  data  furnished  by  the  cen- 
sus, in  accordance  with  which  there  would  be  in 
Massachusetts  about 

300,000  pairs  of  robins. 

250,000  pairs  of  English  sparrows. 

78,000  pairs  of  house  wrens. 

72,000  pairs  of  bluebirds. 

700,000  pairs  in  all. 

Assuming  again  two  young  reared  in  the  second 
brood  gives  a  total  of  1,400,000.  This,  added  to 
the  number  of  the  first  brood  and  to  the  number  of 
adults,  gives  a  total  of  12,600,000  birds  on  the  farms 
of  Massachusetts.  In  accordance  with  the  previous 
estimate  that  cats  kill  about  one  and  a  half  millions, 
this  would  mean  that  they  destroy  annually  about 
one  eighth  of  the  total  bird  population  found  on  the 
farms  of  Massachusetts. 

Mr.  Forbush,  in  his  bulletin  on  the  "  Domestic 
Cat,"  quotes  the  following  estimates:  — 

Dr.  George  W.  Field,  chairman  of  the  Massachusetts 
Commission  on  Fisheries  and  Game,  estimates  that  there 
is  at  least  one  stray  cat  to  every  hundred  acres  in  the 
State,  and  that  each  cat  kills  on  the  average  at  least  one 
bird  every  ten  days  through  the  season,  making  the  an- 
nual destruction  of  birds  by  stray  cats  in  the  State 
approximate  2,000,000. 

Dr.  A.  K.  Fisher,  in  charge  of  Economic  Investiga- 


144  BIRD  FRIENDS 

tions  of  the  Biological  Survey,  estimates  that  the  cats 
of  New  York  State  destroy  3,500,000  birds  annually. 

Mr.  Albert  H.  Pratt  calculates  that  the  farm  cats  of 
Illinois  kill  about  2,500,000  annually. 

Number  of  birds  killed  by  cats  in  the  eastern 
United  States.  The  average  of  these  estimates  for 
the  three  States  is  about  one  hundred  birds  killed 
per  square  mile.  If  this  average  is  applied  to  all 
the  States  east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  it  would 
give  a  total  of  85,000,000  birds  killed  annually  by 
cats  in  the  eastern  United  States. 

We  may  also  make  a  rough  estimate  from  the 
number  of  farms  and  families  in  the  country.  There 
are  in  the  United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River  3,800,000  farms.  If  we  take  the  conditions 
in  Massachusetts  as  being  typical  of  the  rest  of  the 
country  in  averaging  two  cats  to  a  farm,  these  farms 
support  7,600,000  cats.  On  the  farm,  where  there 
are  excellent  hunting-grounds  for  the  cat,  it  is  a 
very  conservative  estimate  that  each  cat  averages 
to  kill  ten  birds  in  a  year,  making  a  total  of  76,000,- 
000  birds  killed  annually  by  cats  on  the  farms  of 
the  eastern  United  States. 

An  estimate  may  also  be  made  of  the  number  of 
birds  killed  by  town  cats.  According  to  the  census 
of  1910,  the  urban  population  of  the  United  States 
east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  living  in  towns  and 
cities  of  twenty-five  hundred  and  over,  was  33,- 
500,000,  comprising  about  7,400,000  families.  The 


BIRD  ENEMIES  INTRODUCED  BY  MAN    145 

cats  kept  by  families  living  in  the  more  crowded 
portions  of  the  large  cities  can  do  little  harm  to 
native  birds,  because  few  birds  are  present.  In  1910 
there  were  east  of  the  Mississippi  River  37  cities 
having  a  population  of  over  one  hundred  thousand, 
making  a  total  of  16,700,000,  comprising  about 
3,700,000  families.  Subtracting  this  number  from 
the  total  number  of  families  given  above  leaves 
3,700,000  families  living  in  towns  and  cities  where 
cats  might  find  birds  to  kill.  The  number  of  fami- 
lies living  in  the  centers  of  cities  with  a  population 
of  less  than  one  hundred  thousand,  where  few  birds 
are  found,  would  be  about  balanced  by  the  number 
of  families  living  in  the  suburbs  of  the  large  cities 
where  birds  are  found. 

At  the  last  census  there  were  about  one  million 
families  east  of  the  Mississippi  River  living  in  in- 
corporated places  of  less  than  twenty-five  hundred. 
This  added  to  the  previous  number  gives  4,700,000 
families  living  in  the  towns  and  smaller  cities  where 
birds  are  found  quite  commonly. 

Mr.  Forbush's  investigations  in  Massachusetts 
showed  that  in  the  towns  the  average  number  of 
cats  per  family  was  about  one.  Allowing  one  cat 
per  family  throughout  the  country  would  give  a  to- 
tal of  4,700,000  cats  kept  by  these  families.  If  we 
assume  that  the  farm  cat  in  good  hunting-grounds 
kills  ten  birds  a  year,  we  may  assume  that  the 
town  cat,  under  less  favorable  conditions,  aver- 


146  BIRD  FRIENDS 

ages  to  kill  five  birds  annually.  This  would  give  a 
total  of  23,500,000  birds  killed  by  these  town  cats. 
This  added  to  the  number  destroyed  by  farm  cats 
gives  a  total  of  99,500,000,  or  about  one  hundred 
million  birds  killed  annually  by  cats  in  the  United 
States  east  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

An  estimate  may  be  made  of  the  percentage  that 
this  forms  of  the  total  bird  population.  A  census 
taken  of  the  birds  on  the  farms  in  the  United  States 
showed  that  there  was  an  average  of  one  pair  to  the 
acre,  making  a  total  of  about  seven  hundred  mil- 
lion birds  east  of  the  Mississippi  River.  If  we  as- 
sume that  each  pan*  rears  to  at  least  partial  matur- 
ity two  young  birds,  there  would  be  approximately 
a  billion  and  a  half  birds  in  this  area,  of  which  num- 
ber, in  accordance  with  the  above  estimate,  about 
one  fifteenth  are  destroyed  by  cats. 

The  above  estimate  does  not  take  into  account 
the  numerous  stray  and  homeless  cats,  which  in 
the  country  doubtless  may  number  as  many  as  the 
pet  farm  cats  and  may  do  fully  as  much  harm.  Mr. 
Chapman  says  that  there  are  not  less  than  twenty- 
five  million  cats  in  the  United  States  and  that  there 
may  be  double  that  number. 

Cats  as  disease-carriers.  One  of  the  reasons 
why  cats  are  kept  is  to  serve  as  pets.  But  even  here 
their  value  is  doubtful,  as  it  has  been  proved  that 
cats  occasionally  act  as  disease-carriers.  Sometimes 
they  have  the  disease  themselves  and  then  carry 


BIRD  ENEMIES  INTRODUCED  BY  MAN    147 

it  directly  to  human  beings;  in  other  cases  they 
simply  carry  on  their  fur  the  disease  germs  which 
are  taken  from  infected  sources.  The  scavenging 
habits  of  cats  in  filthy  places  are  well  known.  While 
seeking  food  in  these  places  and  while  rolling  in  the 
dirt,  then*  fur  takes  up  the  bacteria-laden  dirt,  and 
these  bacteria  may  then  be  transferred  to  children 
and  others  who  fondle  the  cat. 

A  few  years  ago  Dr.  Caroline  A.  Osborne  made 
a  careful  investigation  of  the  evidence  at  hand  re- 
lating to  the  part  that  cats  play  in  carrying  diseases. 
The  results  of  her  investigations  were  published 
in  the  "  Chicago  Medical  Record."  In  accordance 
with  the  evidence  there  presented,  it  seems  estab- 
lished that  cats  are  subject  to  the  folio  whig  dis- 
eases which  are  also  found  in  man:  tuberculosis, 
diphtheria,  bubonic  plague,  whooping-cough,  an- 
thrax, ringworm,  mange,  tapeworm,  trachina,  gland- 
ers, sleeping-sickness,  pulmonary  distomatosis,  and 
Asiatic  liver  fluke.  Evidence  is  also  presented  which 
indicates  that  the  cat  has  been  known  to  carry  the 
following  diseases  to  human  beings,  either  mechani- 
cally on  its  fur  or  through  having  the  disease  itself : 
diphtheria,  bubonic  plague,  scarlet  fever,  smallpox, 
ringworm,  and  mange.  Rats  are  a  source  of  dan- 
ger as  disease-carriers,  and  it  is  shown  that  cats 
through  contact  with  rats  have  been  known  to  carry 
bubonic  plague  and  diphtheria  to  human  beings. 

Mr.  Forbush  in  his  investigations  in  Massachu- 


148  BIRD  FRIENDS 

setts  gathered  evidence  regarding  the  part  that  cats 
play  in  the  transmission  of  diseases.  After  con- 
sultation with  medical  authorities,  he  reached  the 
conclusion  that  most  of  the  data  he  had  gathered 
furnished  only  circumstantial  evidence  and  were 
inconclusive.  But  he  concludes  that  the  evidence 
shows  that  "  cats  undoubtedly  disseminate  ring- 
worm and  rabies,  and  they  may  carry  such  infec- 
tions as  smallpox  and  scarlet  fever;  and  in  some 
cases  serious  infections  appear  to  have  been  trans- 
mitted by  the  bites  or  scratches  of  cats." 

The  evidence  at  hand  proves  conclusively  that 
cats  have  sometimes  been  the  means  of  transmit- 
ting diseases  to  human  beings.  To  determine  ex- 
actly what  kinds  of  diseases  and  how  frequently  they 
may  be  transmitted  to  human  beings  requires  fur- 
ther investigations. 

Remedies.  Bird-students  are  quite  generally 
agreed  that  a  partial  solution  of  the  cat  problem 
lies  in  licensing  cats.  Owners  of  cats  should  be 
required  to  pay  an  annual  license,  such  as  is  now 
required  for  dogs.  This  licensing  would  tend  to  re- 
duce the  number  of  cats,  as  people  who  now  keep 
several  cats  would  then  keep  but  one,  and  some 
people  would  not  keep  any  at  all,  and  the  cats  that 
were  kept  would  be  better  cared  for.  Such  a  cat 
license  is  required  in  St.  Petersburg,  Florida.  The 
town  of  Montclair,  New  Jersey,  has  recently  passed 
an  ordinance  to  the  effect  that  owners  of  cats  shall 


BIRD  ENEMIES  INTRODUCED  BY  MAN    149 

place  marked  tags  or  collars  on  their  cats,  and  pro- 
visions are  made  for  the  humane  disposal  of  any 
cats  not  thus  marked. 

This  licensing  should  be  accompanied  by  some 
plan  by  means  of  which  unlicensed  stray  cats  would 
be  disposed  of.  The  fee  from  the  licenses  might  be 
used  to  employ  some  one  to  capture  and  kill  in  some 
humane  way  the  vagrant  cats.  In  Montclair  an 
animal  warden  has  been  appointed  to  look  after  the 
enforcement  of  the  cat  and  dog  ordinances.  The 
license  fees  have  been  sufficient  to  pay  his  salary. 
The  destruction  of  these  vagrant  cats  is  a  kindness 
to  the  cats,  as  during  the  colder  months  of  the 
year  they  are  not  able  to  secure  enough  food  and 
consequently  live  in  a  half-starved  condition.  In 
New  York  City  alone,  the  Society  for  the  Preven- 
tion of  Cruelty  to  Animals  killed,  during  1915, 
175,000  sick,  injured,  and  homeless  cats.  The  mat- 
ter of  disposing  of  stray  cats  concerns  the  cat-lover 
quite  as  much  as  the  bird-lover. 

Little  can  be  done  in  training  cats  to  let  birds 
alone.  It  is  the  exceptional  cat  that  can  be  thus 
trained.  Belling  the  cat  is  another  method  of  little 
value.  During  the  nesting-season  of  birds  cats 
should  be  shut  up,  especially  at  night  and  during 
the  early  morning,  and  at  all  times  should  be  well 
fed  so  that  they  will  not  have  hunger  added  to  their 
natural  instinct  as  a  stimulus  to  catch  birds.  The 
following  note  is  contributed  to  "  Bird-Lore  "  by 


150  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Cornelia   T.   Fairbanks,   of   St.   Johnsbury,   Ver- 
mont: — 

We  have  solved  the  question  of  how  to  control  our 
family  cat.  His  days  are  spent  under  the  south  piazza, 
where  he  sits  contentedly  looking  out  through  the  netting 
in  front,  or  curls  up  in  a  box  in  a  shady  corner.  After 
the  birds  are  quiet  for  the  night,  he  is  released.  The  good 
supper  that  awaits  him  at  nine  o'clock  never  fails  to 
bring  him  to  the  door,  where  he  is  captured  and  safely 
shut  up  for  the  night. 

Another  solution  of  the  problem  is  to  keep  the 
cat  tethered  to  an  overhead  wire  during  the  birds' 
nesting-season. 

As  a  matter  of  common  decency  no  one  has  a 
right  to  keep  a  cat  that  becomes  a  nuisance  in  kill- 
ing birds  on  his  neighbor's  place,  any  more  than 
he  has  a  right  to  keep  cows  and  horses  and  allow 
them  to  roam  at  will  over  his  neighbor's  garden. 
Any  one  who  wishes  to  attract  birds  around  his 
home  in  any  considerable  numbers  must  dispose  of 
the  cats  that  trespass  on  his  place,  whether  they 
be  stray  cats  or  neighbors'  cats.  These  can  be 
caught  by  means  of  cat-traps,  a  number  of  which 
are  now  in  the  market,  for  sale  by  some  of  the  deal- 
ers listed  in  Chapter  XIX.  Nests  and  nesting-boxes 
may  be  protected  from  cats  by  wrapping  a  piece 
of  tin  or  zinc,  about  eighteen  inches  wide,  around 
the  tree  or  post  four  feet  from  the  ground,  and  fas- 
tening it  there.  Cats  are  not  able  to  climb  over  this. 


BIRD  ENEMIES  INTRODUCED  BY  MAN    151 

The  cat  is  kept  for  two  purposes,  as  a  pet  and  as 
a  mouser.  As  a  pet  it  may  be  dangerous  to  health, 
and  there  are  other  pets  that  are  equally  or  more 
desirable.  As  a  means  of  controlling  rats  and  mice, 
it  is  only  moderately  successful,  and  mice  and  rats 
can  be  more  effectually  controlled  by  means  of  traps 
and  poisons.  Mr.  Forbush's  investigations  in  Mas- 
sachusetts seem  to  indicate  that  only  about  one 
fifth  of  the  cats  kept  in  country  towns  are  efficient 
ratters.  And  when  these  pests  are  once  cleaned 
out  there  is  no  need  for  keeping  a  cat. 

Professor  Nathaniel  Southgate  Shaler  in  his  "  Do- 
mesticated Animals,"  writes  as  follows  of  the  cat:  — 

The  cat  is  the  only  animal  that  has  been  tolerated, 
esteemed,  and,  at  times,  worshiped,  without  having  a 
single  distinctly  valuable  quality.  It  is  in  a  small  way 
serviceable  in  keeping  down  the  excessive  development 
of  small  rodents,  which  from  the  beginning  have  been 
the  self-invited  guests  of  man.  As  it  is  in  a  certain  in- 
different way  sympathetic,  and  by  its  caressing  appears 
to  indicate  affection,  it  has  awakened  a  measure  of  sym- 
pathy which  it  hardly  deserves.  I  have  been  unable  to 
find  any  authentic  instances  which  go  to  show  the  exist- 
ence in  cats  of  any  real  love  for  their  masters. 

Mrs.  Alice  H.  Walter,  in  "  Bird-Lore  "  for  Janu- 
ary-February, 1915,  summarizes  the  matter  in  the 
following  list  of  questions:  — 

Every  person  is  free  to  his  or  her  own  opinion,  but 
conscientious  answers  to  the  following  questions  may 
help  some  who  are  not  decided  as  to  the  merits  of  this 
question  to  make  up  their  minds  definitely:  — 


152  BIRD  FRIENDS 

1.  Am  I  harboring  a  cat  which  may  be  a  disease-carrier? 

2.  Does  my  cat  trespass  on  the  grounds  of  other  peo- 
ple and  interfere  with  their  plans  for  saving  or  at- 
tracting birds? 

8.  How  many  wild  birds  does  my  cat  catch  and  bring 
to  my  notice  every  year? 

4.  Does  my  cat  wander  free  at  night,  disturbing  my 
neighbors  by  fighting  with  other  cats  or  by  making 
harassing  noises? 

5.  Am  I  perfectly  sure  that  my  cat  is  a  good  mouser? 

6.  Am  I  sure  that  rats  and  mice  about  barns  and 
houses  cannot  be  more  effectively  destroyed  by 
some  other  means  than  cats? 

7.  Am  I  justified  in  keeping  cats  which  breed  fre- 
quently and  in  letting  their  progeny  go  here,  there, 
and  everywhere? 

8.  Do  I  know  how  many  stray  cats  are  about  my 
neighborhood? 

9.  Am  I  taking  a  broad-minded  view  of  the  cat  question  ? 
Any  person  who  considers  this  matter  in  the  light  of 

the  public  welfare,  instead  of  his  own  personal  interests, 
is  the  right  kind  of  citizen.  Nowadays,  we  live  in  com- 
munities which  are  too  thickly  populated  to  warrant  a 
superabundance  of  any  animal,  be  it  cat,  dog,  bird,  or 
pig.  Favor  should  be  given  to  those  creatures  which  are 
doing  the  most  good  and  not  to  those  which  are  doing  the 
most  harm. 

The  English  Sparrow 

Ways  in  which  it  is  harmful.  Perhaps  the  Eng- 
lish sparrow  ranks  next  to  the  cat  as  an  enemy  of 
certain  birds  which  it  most  directly  affects.  The  birds 
which  it  especially  injures  are  those  which  seek  simi- 
lar nesting-sites,  such  as  the  wren,  bluebird,  martin, 
and  tree  swallow.  These  birds,  like  the  sparrow, 


BIRD  ENEMIES  INTRODUCED  BY  MAN    153 

all  nest  in  cavities  or  nesting-boxes.  The  sparrows 
remain  all  the  year  round  and  begin  to  nest  before 
the  native  birds  have  returned  in  the  spring,  so  that 
when  they  do  return,  they  frequently  find  their 
nesting-sites  already  occupied.  And  even  when  the 
native  birds  have  found  an  unoccupied  site,  and 
have  started  to  build  their  nests,  the  sparrows  often 
come  and  attempt  to  drive  them  away,  and  as  there 
are  so  many  more  of  the  sparrows  than  of  the  na- 
tive species  they  are  usually  successful. 

The  sparrows  do  not  confine  their  persecution  to 
birds  that  seek  similar  nesting-sites,  but  may  at- 
tack other  birds,  such  as  the  robin,  vireo,  and  cat- 
bird, and  cause  them  to  desert  the  places  where 
they  are  nesting.  And  the  sparrows  even  attack 
the  nests  of  cliff  swallows,  and  drive  barn  swallows 
from  the  buildings  where  they  are  nesting.  The 
sparrows  even  go  farther  than  this  and  sometimes 
break  the  eggs  and  destroy  young  birds  in  the  nests. 

Professor  Barrows  gives  a  list  of  seventy-five 
species  of  our  native  birds  which  English  sparrows 
have  been  reported  to  molest.  The  following  table 
shows  the  number  of  times  they  were  reported  to 
have  attacked  certain  birds:  — 

Bird  attacked  Number  of  different 

records  of  attacking 

Swallows  and  martins 440 

Bluebird   377 

Other  sparrows   273 

Wrens   191 

Robin   .  .  182 


154  BIRD  FRIENDS 

One  thing  that  makes  the  sparrows  so  trouble- 
some is  the  large  number  of  young  that  they  raise 
each  year.  They  begin  nesting  in  late  winter  or 
early  spring  and  may  rear  five  or  six  broods,  in- 
cluding from  twenty  to  thirty  young,  in  a  season. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  the  offspring  from  a  sin- 
gle pair  of  sparrows  in  ten  years  might  number 
275,000,000,000. 

Remedies.  Where  bird-houses  are  put  out  to  at- 
tract native  birds,  the  sparrows  usually  attempt  to 
occupy  them,  and  must  be  driven  away  or  killed  if 
we  wish  to  induce  the  native  birds  to  nest  there. 

The  sparrow  may  be  kept  from  using  boxes  in- 
tended for  smaller  birds  by  making  the  hole  so  small 
that  the  sparrows  cannot  enter.  The  sparrow  can- 
not enter  a  one-and-one-eighth-inch  hole,  but  this 
hole  is  large  enough  for  the  chickadee,  and  an  inch 
hole  is  large  enough  for  the  wren. 

Sparrows  may  be  prevented  from  rearing  their 
young  in  bird-boxes  by  removing  their  eggs  every 
week  or  two  during  the  nesting-season,  and  some- 
times the  sparrows  will  leave  as  a  result;  but  the 
only  satisfactory  solution  seems  to  be  to  kill  the 
sparrows.  This  may  be  done  in  three  ways:  by 
shooting,  by  poisoning,  and  by  trapping. 

The  enormous  numbers  of  sparrows  and  the  wide 
range  over  which  they  are  found  might  at  first  seem 
to  make  any  attempts  at  their  destruction  hope- 
less. But  experiments  in  the  destruction  of  these 


BIRD  ENEMIES  INTRODUCED  BY  MAN     155 

birds  have  shown  that  flocks  and  individuals  have 
a  very  narrow  range,  and  confine  their  activities 
largely  to  one  locality,  so  that  when  a  place  has 
once  been  freed  of  sparrows,  some  time  passes  be- 
fore others  come  in.  The  following  illustration  of 
this  is  given  in  the  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  493, "  The 
English  Sparrow  as  a  Pest  " :  — 

This  tendency  to  remain  on  a  special  territory  was 
well  shown  during  a  recent  experiment  with  a  flock  in  a 
small  garden.  During  the  fall  steady  trapping  reduced 
the  resident  flock  in  the  garden  to  a  dozen  individuals, 
274  birds  having  been  trapped.  The  survivors  were 
poisoned.  Though  another  flock  lived  in  the  street  just 
beyond  the  fence,  the  garden  was  sparrow-free  for  three 
months.  In  the  following  spring  a  few  sparrows  ap- 
peared, but  were  soon  trapped.  After  this  the  garden  con- 
tinued throughout  the  summer  without  a  resident  flock, 
and  only  rarely  was  it  visited  by  sparrows  from  other 
parts  of  the  neighborhood. 

Shooting  the  sparrows.  There  are  a  number  of 
reports  available  which  show  that  the  sparrow  can 
be  controlled  by  systematic  shooting.  Mr.  Newton 
Miller  reports  in  "Bird-Lore"  that  for  twenty-five 
years  on  his  father's  farm  the  sparrows  were  almost 
completely  kept  under  control  by  shooting.  Each 
spring  from  two  to  five  pairs  of  sparrows  came  look- 
ing for  nesting-sites,  but  when  these  were  shot,  the 
farm  remained  practically  free  from  the  pest  for  the 
rest  of  the  year. 

Mr.  E.  H.  Baynes  reports  from  Meriden,  New 


156  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Hampshire,  that  the  sparrows  have  been  easily  con- 
trolled by  shooting.  During  the  first  season  a  war- 
fare was  kept  up  with  two  guns  for  a  number  of 
weeks  till  the  sparrows  that  had  not  been  shot  left 
town.  About  once  a  year  a  flock  of  from  twenty  to 
thirty  sparrows  comes  toMeriden  from  the  surround- 
ing villages,  but  these  are  quickly  disposed  of,  or 
driven  away  by  a  few  days'  shooting. 

Mr.  E.  H.  Forbush  report*  that  his  farm  has  been 
kept  clear  of  sparrows  for  ten  years  by  the  practice 
of  shooting  promptly  the  first  one  that  appeared. 

Mr.  Neil  M.  Ladd  gives  the  following  suggestions 
in  the  first  annual  report  of  the  Greenwich  Bird 
Protective  Society:  — 

Shooting  accomplishes  great  results  when  done  as 
follows:  Feed  small  grains  from  a  small  narrow  trough 
on  the  ground  for  several  days  until  hundreds  of  sparrows 
from  the  surrounding  neighborhood  flock  to  it  the  mo- 
ment the  food  is  put  out.  A  shotgun  so  placed  as  to 
sweep  the  length  of  the  trough  will  kill  dozens  at  each 
shot.  The  gun  can  easily  be  secured  in  place  and  the 
trigger  released  by  a  long  string. 

In  this  connection  the  question  has  been  raised 
whether  shooting  would  not  drive  away  other  birds. 
But  the  records  which  the  author  has  been  able  to 
obtain,  together  with  his  own  experience,  indicate 
that  this  fear  is  groundless. 

Poisoning  the  sparrows.  During  the  winter  spar- 
rows may  be  poisoned  if  care  is  taken  to  see  that  no 
other  birds  eat  the  poisoned  food.  In  the  Farmers' 


BIRD  ENEMIES  INTRODUCED  BY  MAN    157 

Bulletin  No.  493,  on  "The  English  Sparrow  as  a 
Pest,"  the  following  directions  are  given  for  the 
preparation  of  poisoned  grain :  — 

Put  one  eighth  ounce  of  pulverized  strychnine  sul- 
phate into  three  fourths  of  a  gill  of  hot  water,  add  one 
and  one-half  teaspoonfuls  of  starch  or  wheat  flour,  mois- 
tened with  a  few  drops  of  cold  water,  and  heat,  stirring 
constantly  till  the  mixture  thickens.  Pour  the  hot  poi- 
soned starch  over  one  quart  of  wheat  and  stir  till  every 
kernel  is  coated.  Small-kerneled  wheat  sold  as  poultry 
food,  if  reasonably  clean,  is  preferable  to  first-quality 
grain,  being  cheaper  and  more  easily  eaten  by  the  spar- 
rows. A  two-quart  glass  fruit  jar  is  a  good  vessel  to  mix 
in,  as  it  is  easily  shaken  and  allows  the  condition  of  the 
contents  to  be  seen.  If  the  coated  wheat  be  spread  thinly 
on  a  hard,  flat  surface,  it  will  be  dry  enough  for  use  in  a 
short  time.  It  should  be  dried  thoroughly  if  it  is  to  be 
put  into  jars  and  kept  for  future  use. 

The  following  method  of  using  poisoned  grain  is 
given  by  Dr.  Hodge  in  "Nature-Study  and  Life" : — 

It  requires  but  one  kernel  to  kill  a  sparrow.  A  quart 
of  wheat  contains  about  23,000  kernels,  and  the  spar- 
rows seldom  take  more  than  two  or  three.  Expose  the 
grain  where  poultry  and  tame  pigeons  cannot  get  it, 
and  by  operating  only  during  the  winter,  there  will  be 
no  danger  of  poisoning  seed-eating  wild  birds  at  least  for 
all  Northern  towns  and  cities.  By  taking  advantage  of 
the  sparrows'  gregarious  habits,  and  the  fact  that  they 
drive  off  other  birds  from  localities  where  they  are  nu- 
merous, much  might  be  done  even  in  the  South. 

Sparrows  are  such  suspicious  and  cunning  birds  that, 
if  the  strychninized  grain  be  exposed  at  first,  they  will 
probably  roll  each  kernel  in  their  bills,  taste  it,  reject  it, 


158  BIRD  FRIENDS 

and  possibly  refuse  to  touch  it  again  that  winter.  The 
best  way  is  to  select  a  place  where  the  wind  is  not  likely 
to  scatter  it  away,  —  a  walk,  a  driveway,  or  porch-roof 
with  a  smooth  surface,  —  so  that  the  grain  may  be  swept 
up  after  each  trial.  Accustom  them  to  feeding  there 
daily  with  grain  exactly  like  that  which  is  medicated. 
(I  often  do  this  for  a  week,  or  even  a  month,  until  all 
the  sparrows  in  the  neighborhood  are  wont  to  come 
regularly.)  Study  the  times  when  they  come  for  their 
meals,  and  then  on  a  cold,  dry  morning,  after  a  heavy 
snowstorm,  having  swept  up  all  the  good  grain  the 
morning  before,  wait  till  they  have  gathered  and  then 
put  enough  strychninized  grain  to  feed  the  whole  flock. 
You  have  about  ten  minutes  before  any  begin  to  drop, 
and  those  that  have  not  partaken  of  the  grain  by  this 
time  will  probably  be  frightened  off:  but  by  timing  it 
properly  I  have  repeatedly  caught  every  sparrow  in  the 
flock.  I  have  found  morning  the  best  time,  as  they  all 
come  then;  and  it  is  essential  to  success  to  select  a  dry 
day,  since  in  wet  weather  they  taste  the  strychnine  too 
easily;  I  have  seen  them  actually  throw  it  out  of  the  crop. 
With  this  simple  method  at  command,  by  concerted 
action,  a  few  friends  of  our  native  birds  can  rid  any 
Northern  city  of  the  sparrow  pest  in  a  single  winter.  This 
is  no  more  than  parents  ought  to  do  for  the  sake  of  the 
native  birds,  and  if  not  for  their  sake,  at  least  to  clear 
the  way  for  the  children  to  do  effective  work  in  their  be- 
half. 

That  sparrows  can  be  kept  in  check  by  systematic 
poisoning  is  shown  by  the  experience  of  Mr.  Frank 
Bond  while  a  resident  of  Cheyenne,  Wyoming. 
Each  winter  a  campaign  was  waged  and  the  numbers 
of  the  sparrows  were  so  reduced  that  they  did  not 
interfere  with  the  breeding  of  the  native  birds,  which 


BIRD  ENEMIES  INTRODUCED  BY  MAN    159 

increased  greatly  in  numbers  with  the  growth  of 
trees  and  parks,  and  the  mountain  bluebirds  and 
house  finch  were  common  occupants  of  bird-houses. 
At  the  close  of  the  winter's  work  there  were  never 
left  more  than  thirty  or  forty  sparrows,  and  some- 
times even  fewer. 

When  using  the  poisoned  grain,  after  some  of  the 
birds  have  been  killed,  other  birds  will  be  frightened 
away,  so  that  after  each  killing  unpoisoned  grain 
should  be  fed  till  the  birds  become  accustomed  to 
feeding  there.  Then  the  poisoned  grain  may  be 
used  again. 

Trapping  the  sparrows.  Trapping  is  one  of  the 
most  satisfactory  methods  of  killing  the  sparrows, 
and  in  some  localities  it  is  the  only  method  that  can 
be  used.  It  is  a  safer  method  than  shooting  or  poison- 
ing, and  may  be  used  in  cities  where  the  other  meth- 
ods would  not  be  allowed.  Sparrows  caught  in  this 
way  may  be  used  for  food,  if  desired,  and  if  native 
birds  are  caught  they  can  be  set  free.  In  using 
poisons  and  traps  special  care  should  be  taken  to 
see  that  our  native  birds  are  not  killed  by  mistake. 

The  combined  use  of  traps  and  poisons  is  very  ef- 
fective. The  trap  may  first  be  used  to  catch  as  many 
of  the  flock  as  will  enter  it  and  then  poison  may  be 
used  to  kill  the  remainder. 

At  least  two  types  of  traps  may  be  used  for  catch- 
ing sparrows,  the  nest-box  trap  and  the  bait  trap. 
The  nest-box  trap  is  so  arranged  that  when  the 


160  BIRD  FRIENDS 

bird  enters,  its  weight  pushes  down  a  pivoted  can 
and  the  bird  drops  down  into  the  bottom,  where  it 
is  imprisoned  and  may  be  easily  removed  and  killed. 

In  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  493  is  described  a  bait 
trap.  This  is  a  kind  of  funnel  trap  made  of  woven- 
wire  poultry  netting.  It  consists  of  four  parts: 
(1)  a  half-funnel  leading  into  (2)  an  antechamber, 
which  ends  in  (3)  a  complete  funnel  leading  into 
(4)  a  final  chamber.  Canary  seed,  hemp  seed,  wheat, 
oats,  and  bread-crumbs  may  be  used  for  bait.  These 
are  scattered  in  the  antechamber  and  a  little  about 
the  entrance.  A  live  sparrow  may  be  kept  in  the 
trap  as  a  decoy.  The  trap  will  prove  more  effective 
if  it  is  moved  daily  from  one  feeding-place  to  an- 
other. The  sparrows  are  removed  from  the  trap 
by  means  of  a  small  receiving-box  which  is  placed 
against  a  small  door  leading  out  of  the  final  cham- 
ber. The  sparrows  may  be  easily  drowned  by 
placing  in  a  bag  and  immersing  in  a  pail  of  water. 

These  traps  have  been  widely  used  with  much 
success.  Average  catches  of  ten  or  twenty  birds  a 
day  are  reported,  and  an  occasional  catch  of  one 
hundred  in  a  day.  The  bulletin  mentioned  above 
reports  a  catch  of  three  hundred  in  six  weeks.  One 
man  reports  a  catch  of  six  thousand  sparrows  in  four 
years  through  the  use  of  traps.  These  traps  may  be 
purchased  from  a  number  of  dealers  listed  in  Chap- 
ter XIX,  at  prices  ranging  from  three  to  six  dollars. 


CHAPTER  XV 

MAN   AS   AN   ENEMY   OF   BIRDS 

THIS  chapter  will  be  devoted  to  a  discussion  of 
the  part  that  man  has  played  directly  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  birds.  Some  of  the  ways  in  which  bird  life  has 
been  destroyed  are  due  to  settlement  and  the  general 
advance  of  civilization,  and  these  are  unavoidable. 

Advance  of  civilization.  With  the  rapid  increase 
in  population  in  the  cities  and  towns,  and  their  cor- 
responding growth  countryward,  roadside  shrub- 
bery, orchards,  decaying  trees,  and  other  nesting- 
sites  are  steadily  disappearing.  In  the  suburbs  of 
cities  birds  that  nest  in  cavities,  such  as  the  blue- 
bird and  wren,  experience  difficulty  in  finding  nest- 
ing-sites. In  the  country  sometimes  the  farmer 
thinks  he  must  clear  up  the  shrubbery  and  the 
tangles  by  the  roadside  and  along  the  fences,  which, 
however,  furnish  one  excellent  means  of  inducing 
the  birds  to  remain  and  nest. 

The  breeding-places  of  many  water-birds  are  be- 
ing destroyed  by  the  drainage  of  swamps  and 
marshes.  Not  only  is  this  true  in  the  growth  of 
towns  and  cities  as  their  limits  are  broadened,  but 
large  areas  are  being  drained  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses to  reclaim  waste  land.  Throughout  the  north 


162  BIRD  FRIENDS 

central  part  of  the  United  States  are  many  small 
marshes  which  are  being  tiled  and  reclaimed  by  the 
farmer. 

During  migration  seasons  many  birds  lose  their 
lives  by  dashing  against  lighthouses  that  happen 
to  be  in  their  path.  This  has  been  especially  ob- 
served along  the  Atlantic  Coast.  It  was  reported 
that  at  the  base  of  the  statue  of  Liberty  in  New 
York  Harbor  there  were  found  one  morning  four- 
teen hundred  dead  birds  which  had  been  killed 
during  the  night. 

And  finally  man  has  played  a  very  prominent 
part  directly  in  bird-destruction  by  intentionally 
and  deliberately  killing  birds;  and  this  forms  one 
of  the  saddest  stories  in  connection  with  bird  life, 
sad  from  the  standpoint  of  birds  on  account  of  the 
harm  that  has  been  done  them,  and  sad  from  the 
standpoint  of  mankind,  as  indicating  the  savage 
spirit  which  still  pervades  "civilized"  man.  All 
other  forces  combined  are  mere  trifles  compared 
with  the  part  that  man  has  played  in  the  extermina- 
tion of  bird  life. 

Shooting  for  sport.  Every  year  a  vast  army  of  men 
and  boys,  equipped  with  modern  weapons,  goes  to 
the  woods,  fields,  and  lakes  to  slaughter  birds.  Mr. 
H.  W.  Henshaw,  chief  of  the  United  States  Biologi- 
cal Survey,  writes  that  more  than  ten  per  cent  of  all 
people  in  the  Northwest  are  licensed  hunters,  and 
that  there  are  probably  not  far  from  five  millions 


MAN  AS  AN  ENEMY  OF  BIRDS        163 

in  the  United  States  who  are  interested  in  the  pur- 
suit of  game.  In  the  year  1911,  hunting  licenses 
were  issued  to  2,642,000  gunners  in  the  United 
States.  Besides  these  there  is  another  great  army 
of  gunners  who  hunt  contrary  to  law  and  without 
licenses,  which  is  believed  to  be  equally  as  large  as 
the  number  of  licensed  hunters.  This  makes  five 
million  gunners,  an  army  comparable  to  those  en- 
gaged in  the  great  European  conflict.  And  this  vast 
horde,  averaging  about  one  person  to  every  three 
voters,  marches  forth  each  year  for  the  "sport  of 
killing,"  deliberately  bent  on  destroying  bird  life. 
There  is  little  wonder  that  our  game-birds  are  fast 
disappearing. 

The  improvements  that  have  been  made  in  fire- 
arms render  shooting  much  more  deadly  than  form- 
erly to  bird  life.  The  pump  and  automatic  guns 
are  really  machine  guns  which  allow  five  or  six  shots 
to  be  fired  in  as  many  seconds.  The  annual  output 
of  these  guns  is  over  one  hundred  thousand. 

It  is  easy  to  understand  that  the  annual  slaughter 
by  gunners  armed  with  such  weapons  is  enormous. 
A  few  examples  will  be  given  to  show  what  devas- 
tation is  possible  with  these  modern  weapons,  which 
give  the  birds  little  if  any  chance  of  escape. 

On  Marsh  Island,  Louisiana,  one  man  killed  369 
ducks  in  one  day  and  another  market  hunter  killed 
430.  Two  hunters  in  California  killed  218  geese  in 
one  hour  and  450  in  one  day.  One  case  is  recorded 


164  BIRD  FRIENDS 

where  a  man,  armed  with  several  pump  guns  and 
assisted  by  a  man  to  keep  them  loaded,  hid  in  a  blind, 
and  killed  over  one  hundred  ducks  in  less  than  two 
hours.  By  means  of  these  guns  a  hunter  may  kill 
seven  or  eight  birds  out  of  a  flock. 

The  term  "game  hog"  has  been  aptly  applied  to 
this  type  of  man  who  kills  without  limit,  merely  for 
the  sport  of  killing.  Most  States  have  a  "bag-limit " 
on  game  which  defines  the  largest  number  of  birds 
a  person  may  take  in  one  day,  but  the  limit  is  usu- 
ally so  high  as  to  furnish  insufficient  protection. 

Railroads  have  been  built  through  hunting- 
grounds  hitherto  inaccessible.  The  use  of  automo- 
biles and  motor-boats  allows  gunners  to  travel  over 
five  times  as  large  an  area  as  formerly  and  hence 
to  do  five  times  as  much  damage. 

A  form  of  gun  that  is  now  being  used  by  men  and 
boys  to  shoot  song-birds  is  called  the  "Sunday 
gun."  It  is  the  combination  of  a  rifle  and  shotgun, 
having  two  barrels.  It  is  light  and  easily  concealed 
under  the  coat.  It  derived  its  name  on  account  of  the 
use  to  which  it  is  put.  On  Sundays  boys  and  men 
start  out  with  these  weapons  concealed  under  their 
coats,  and  when  they  reach  the  country  spend  the 
day  shooting  song-birds. 

Hunting  contests.  In  some  parts  of  the  country 
it  has  been  the  custom  to  have  hunting  contests. 
The  men  and  boys  of  a  community  meet,  armed  with 
guns.  Captains  are  selected  and  sides  chosen.  The 


MAN  AS  AN  ENEMY  OF  BIRDS         165 

purpose  of  the  day's  hunt  is  to  see  which  side  can  kill 
the  most  birds.  The  hunters  scatter  over  the  coun- 
try shooting  all  living  things,  and,  bringing  in  their 
game,  meet  again,  and  count  up  the  points  to  see 
which  side  has  the  higher  score.  Each  bird  killed 
counts  for  a  certain  number  of  points. 

Five  hundred  and  sixty -five  birds  and  other  ani- 
mals were  killed  in  an  annual  " side"  hunt  at  Enos- 
burg  Falls,  Vermont,  October  9,  1896.  In  a  town  in 
Vermont  in  which  the  author  lived,  a  hunting  con- 
test was  conducted  on  Thanksgiving  Day;  and  after 
the  hunt  was  over,  the  party  went  to  a  hotel  and 
the  side  which  had  scored  the  highest  count  was 
treated  to  a  Thanksgiving  dinner  by  the  losing  side. 

Most  of  the  destruction  to  which  reference  has 
so  far  been  made  refers  to  the  game-birds,  but  the 
small  song-birds  are  also  threatened  by  gunners,  in- 
cluding boys,  foreigners  (mostly  Italians),  negroes, 
and  poor  whites  in  the  South. 

Shooting  by  boys.  Rifles  and  other  guns  are  often 
used  by  boys  to  shoot  small  birds.  Sometimes  there 
is  a  contest  to  see  who  can  kill  the  greatest  number. 
Mr.  Forbush  records  a  case  in  which  one  boy  with 
his  air  rifle  killed  470  song-birds,  and  some  of  his 
companions  had  killed  more  than  this.  One  boy 
was  found  near  Washington,  D.C.,  with  seventy-two 
kinglets  alone,  besides  many  other  birds  which  had 
been  killed  in  one  day.  During  the  season  he  had 
killed  over  one  hundred  catbirds.  Boys  sometimes 


166  BIRD  FRIENDS 

start  out  to  kill  English  sparrows,  but  are  not  able 
to  distinguish  the  different  kinds  of  sparrows  and 
so  kill  valuable  native  sparrows. 

Shooting  of  song-birds  by  foreigners.  In  Italy  any 
kind  of  song-bird  is  considered  legitimate  game,  and 
when  the  Italians  first  come  to  this  country  they 
often  begin  to  hunt  our  small  song-birds.  Mr.  C.  A. 
Johnson,  of  Hoosick  Falls,  New  York,  reports  that 
two  Italians  recently  confessed  in  court  that  they 
had  boiled  alive  and  then  eaten  young  robins  and 
flickers  which  they  had  taken  from  their  nests. 
Wherever  there  are  large  construction  works  of 
railroads,  aqueducts,  etc.,  for  which  large  numbers 
of  Italians  are  employed,  Sunday  is  apt  to  be  a 
day  of  bird-slaughter.  In  Pennsylvania,  six  game- 
wardens  were  killed  and  eight  or  ten  wounded  while 
enforcing  the  law  against  foreigners. 

Slaughter  of  robins  in  the  South.  In  the  South 
the  song-birds  are  not  so  well  protected  as  in  the 
North,  and  many  of  them  are  shot  for  food.  Robins 
were  formerly  killed  in  enormous  numbers  for  this 
purpose.  The  robins  roost  together  in  large  num- 
bers and  are  easily  killed  at  night  by  means  of 
torches,  clubs,  and  poles. 

One  small  hamlet  in  the  South  sent  120,000  robins 
to  market,  where  they  were  sold  at  five  cents  per 
dozen.  In  one  section  of  Louisiana,  where  the  robins 
came  in  the  winter  to  feed  on  the  holly  berries, 
about  ten  thousand  birds  were  slain  daily  as  long 


MAN  AS  AN  ENEMY  OF  BIRDS       167 

as  the  robins  remained  in  the  locality.  An  officer 
of  the  Louisiana  Audubon  Society  estimates  that 
one  quarter-million  robins  are  killed  annually  in 
that  State  for  food  purposes. 

In  1911  there  were  eight  Southern  States  in  which 
robins  were  legally  shot  and  eaten:  Louisiana,  Mis- 
sissippi, North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Tennessee, 
Maryland,  Texas,  and  Florida. 

Shooting  for  market.  Regarding  the  hunters  who 
shoot  to  supply  the  markets,  Dr.  Hornaday  writes, 
in  "Our  Vanishing  Wild  Life":  — 

Beyond  reasonable  doubt,  this  awful  traffic  in  dead 
game  is  responsible  for  at  least  three  fourths  of  the 
slaughter  that  has  reduced  our  game  birds  to  a  mere 
remnant  of  their  former  abundance.  There  is  no  influ- 
ence so  deadly  to  wild  life  as  that  of  the  market  gunner 
who  works  six  days  a  week,  from  sunrise  till  sunset, 
hunting  and  killing  every  game  bird  that  he  can  reach 
with  a  choke-bore  gun. 

It  has  been  estimated  by  careful  observers  that 
on  the  coast  of  North  Carolina  and  in  southern 
Louisiana,  at  least  fifty  per  cent  of  the  ducks  that 
wintered  there  were  formerly  killed  each  year. 

The  following  records  of  a  professional  market 
hunter  have  been  published  in  a  sportsman's  maga- 
zine. During  a  three  months'  shoot  in  Iowa  and 
Minnesota  he  shot  6250  game-birds.  During  a  win- 
ter's hunting  in  the  South  he  killed  4450  ducks.  Dur- 
ing his  forty  years'  experience  as  a  market  hunter 


168  BIRD  FRIENDS 

he  killed  4948  plover,  5066  snipe,  5291  quail,  5291 
prairie  chickens,  8117  useful  blackbirds,  61,752 
ducks,  and  many  other  birds,  making  a  total  of 
139,628  birds  representing  twenty-nine  species. 

In  the  State  of  Nebraska  nearly  a  half-million 
quail  and  grouse  were  formerly  sold  annually. 

In  the  State  of  Alabama,  before  the  present  game 
laws  were  passed,  nine  million  bob-whites  were 
killed  in  one  season. 

In  Georgetown,  South  Carolina,  240,000  rails  and 
720,000  bobolinks  have  been  shipped  in  one  season. 

Below  is  the  official  record  of  game  killed  in 
Louisiana  during  the  season  (12  months)  of  1909 
and  1910:- 

Wild  ducks  (sea  and  river) 3,176,000 

Quail  (bob-white) 1,140,750 

Snipe,  sandpiper,  and  plover 606,635 

Doves 310,660 

Coots 280,740 

Geese  and  brant. 202,210 

Wild  turkeys 2,219 

Total  number  of  game-birds  killed 5,719,214 

The  milliners'  trade.  Formerly  our  common  song- 
birds, such  as  scarlet  tanagers,  orioles,  and  blue- 
birds, were  shot  and  sold  for  the  milliners'  trade. 
In  1886  Mr.  Frank  M.  Chapman  observed  the 
feathered  decorations  on  the  hats  of  women  he  hap- 
pened to  meet  in  the  shopping  district  of  New  York 
City  for  two  afternoons.  He  found  in  common  use 
such  birds  as  robins,  thrushes,  blackbirds,  tanagers, 
swallows,  warblers,  and  waxwings.  He  also  found 


YOUNG    EGRETS    LEFT    FATHERLESS    AND 
MOTHERLESS    BY    PLUME-HUNTERS 


RED    SQUIRREL,    A    NEST-ROBBER 


MAN  AS  AN  ENEMY  OF  BIRDS        169 

bobolinks,  larks,  orioles,  and  woodpeckers.  He 
recognized  the  plumage  of  forty  species  of  common 
song-birds.  Out  of  seven  hundred  hats  counted  in 
one  afternoon,  five  hundred  and  forty-two  were 
decorated  with  feathers. 

When  the  shooting  of  song-birds  was  more  gener- 
ally prohibited  by  law,  some  of  the  water-birds,  such 
as  the  gulls,  terns,  and  herons,  were  next  slaughtered 
for  this  purpose.  Between  1900  and  1908,  thousands 
of  grebes  were  slaughtered  in  the  lake  region  of  south- 
ern Oregon,  till  the  birds  were  almost  exterminated. 
The  pursuit  of  these  birds  has  continued  until  recent 
times,  and  when  the  shooting  and  sale  of  these  were 
prohibited,  birds  were  sought  from  other  countries, 
till  now  the  importation  of  plumes  for  milliners'  use 
is  prohibited  by  federal  law. 

Terns  were  formerly  slaughtered  along  the  coast 
of  Long  Island.  One  village  alone  supplied  seventy 
thousand  bird-skins  in  four  months  to  the  New  York 
trade.  Mr.  Dutcher  wrote:  "On  the  coast  of  Long 
Island,  the  slaughter  has  been  carried  on  to  such  a 
degree  that,  where,  a  few  years  since,  thousands 
and  thousands  of  terns  were  gracefully  sailing  over 
the  surf-beaten  shore  and  the  wind-rippled  bays, 
now  one  is  rarely  to  be  seen." 

One  dealer,  during  a  three  months'  stay  in  North 
Carolina,  prepared  eleven  thousand  bird-skins.  He 
handled  about  thirty  thousand  skins  every  year. 
One  milliner  visited  Cobb's  Island,  on  the  coast 


170  BIRD  FRIENDS 

of  Virginia,  to  fill  a  foreign  order  for  forty  thousand 
bird-skins.  Men  were  hired  to  kill  the  terns  and 
gulls  found  here  and  were  paid  ten  cents  for  each 
bird  killed. 

Tragedy  on  Laysan  Island.  Six  years  ago  a  bird 
tragedy  was  enacted  on  Laysan  Island,  an  American 
island  in  the  Hawaiian  group,  in  order  to  get 
plumes  for  the  milliners'  trade.  Water-birds  bred  on 
this  island  in  enormous  numbers.  A  plume-hunter, 
accompanied  by  twenty-three  Japanese  laborers, 
sailed  from  Honolulu  and  made  a  raid  on  the  island 
to  kill  the  birds  found  there,  for  their  feathers.  For 
several  months  they  remained  here  slaughtering  the 
birds,  when  the  United  States  Government  learned 
of  what  was  happening  and  sent  a  revenue  cutter 
to  stop  them.  When  the  captain  arrived,  he  found 
that  they  had  already  killed  about  three  hundred 
thousand  birds  and  had  about  three  carloads  of 
wings,  feathers,  and  skins.  Nearly  every  bird  on  the 
island  had  been  killed,  and  doubtless  the  remainder 
would  have  been  had  not  the  hunters  been  stopped 
in  their  butchery.  Hundreds  of  birds  were  impris- 
oned in  a  dry  cistern  and  allowed  slowly  to  starve 
to  death,  because  the  skins  from  these  birds  were 
easier  to  prepare  than  those  from  birds  killed  while 
they  were  fat.  There  now  comes  another  report 
that  during  the  year  1915  another  raid  was  made 
on  Laysan  Island,  almost  as  destructive  as  the  one 
mentioned  above. 


MAN  AS  AN  ENEMY  OF  BIRDS        171 

The  egret.  One  of  the  most  expensive  plumes  used 
in  the  milliners'  trade  is  the  aigrette,  which  sells  at 
about  forty  dollars  an  ounce.  Six  birds  are  required 
to  furnish  an  ounce  of  feathers.  These  plumes  are 
borne  by  the  bird  only  during  the  nesting-season, 
and  the  birds  must  be  killed  then  to  obtain  them. 
The  reports  that  they  are  picked  up  after  being 
shed  by  the  bird  is  absolutely  untrue.  The  birds 
nest  together  in  large  numbers  and  so  when  once 
found  are  easily  destroyed.  The  method  by  which 
the  plumes  are  obtained  is  most  sickening  and 
horrible.  The  adult  birds  are  shot  and  the  plumes 
are  stripped  from  their  backs,  often  before  the 
birds  are  dead.  Thus  the  nestling  birds,  after  the 
parents  are  killed,  are  left  to  die  slowly  of  expos- 
ure and  starvation.  And  in  one  case  a  still  sadder 
chapter  was  added  to  this  pitiful  story.  The  Audu- 
bon  Societies  were  making  efforts  to  protect  the  few 
remaining  colonies  in  the  South  and  had  appointed 
Mr.  Guy  Bradley  as  warden  to  guard  these  colonies, 
which  were  protected  by  the  laws  of  the  State. 
While  doing  his  duty  guarding  this  colony  he  was 
killed  by  plume-hunters. 

Egg-collecting.  The  collecting  of  birds'  eggs  has 
been  one  cause  of  the  decrease  of  birds.  In  former 
years  large  numbers  of  eggs  of  water-birds,  which 
nested  in  large  colonies,  were  collected  along  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Coasts  and  sold  in  the  markets, 
but  this  is  now  almost  entirely  a  thing  of  the  past. 


172  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Another  scourge  of  birds  in  some  localities  has  been 
the  boy  egg-collector.  Boys  have  a  natural  instinct 
for  collecting,  and  unless  taught  better  sometimes 
collect  birds'  eggs.  These  collections  usually  have 
no  scientific  value,  the  chief  purpose  of  the  collector 
being  to  see  how  many  kinds  of  eggs  he  can  find. 
Where  there  is  rivalry  among  boys  to  see  who  can 
collect  the  most  eggs,  the  results  will  be  disastrous 
to  the  bird  life  of  that  locality.  In  most  cases,  prob- 
ably, boys  do  not  realize  that  the  taking  of  eggs  is 
forbidden  by  law.  This  kind  of  collecting  is  appar- 
ently now  not  so  common  as  in  former  years.  Some- 
times professional  collectors  who  have  a  license  to 
collect  may  go  to  extremes  in  the  number  they 
secure. 

Remedies.  The  remedy  for  excessive  shooting  for 
sport  is  to  shorten  the  open  seasons,  reduce  the  bag- 
limit,  and  regulate  the  guns  that  may  be  used.  In 
recent  years  there  has  been  a  great  improvement 
along  these  lines  in  all  the  state  laws. 

The  remedy  for  shooting  for  market  and  for 
feathers  is  to  prohibit  the  selling  of  game  and  the  use 
of  feathers  of  wild  birds  for  millinery  purposes.  In 
most  of  our  States  the  sale  of  game  is  prohibited 
now,  and  in  some  the  use  of  feathers,  and  the  recent 
federal  tariff  regulation  forbids  the  importation  of 
feathers  for  millinery  purposes.  Thus,  with  refer- 
ence to  all  kinds  of  shooting  the  outlook  for  the 
protection  of  birds  is  very  hopeful. 


MAN  AS  AN  ENEMY  OF  BIRDS       173 

The  small  boy  who  shoots  birds  and  collects  eggs 
must  be  reached  through  the  schools,  and  with  the 
introduction  of  nature-study  into  so  many  schools 
the  value  and  protection  of  bird  life  are  now  being 
widely  taught. 

The  problem  presented  by  the  shooting  of  song- 
birds by  foreigners  has  been  solved  by  several  States 
by  prohibiting  aliens  from  hunting  or  from  owning 
or  possessing  guns. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

WORK   OF   THE   AUDUBON   SOCIETIES 

THE  preceding  chapters  have  explained  the  work 
done  by  the  army  of  destruction  in  slaughtering 
birds.  The  next  few  chapters  will  be  devoted  to  the 
much  pleasanter  task  of  explaining  the  work  done 
by  the  army  of  protection  in  trying  to  save  our  birds. 
This  army  is  constantly  growing  larger  and  has  been 
winning  battle  after  battle  of  such  decisive  char- 
acter that  the  outlook  is  now  most  promising  that 
this  army  will  soon  be  entirely  victorious. 

The  first  Audubon  Society.  The  most  active  and 
effective  agents  in  the  cause  of  bird-protection  are 
the  Audubon  Societies.  The  first  society  of  this 
name  was  organized  in  1886  by  Dr.  George  B.  Grin- 
nell,  editor  of  "Forest  and  Stream."  As  the  result 
of  an  editorial  written  by  Dr.  Grinnell  the  idea  of 
forming  such  a  society  met  with  a  ready  response 
and  was  endorsed  by  such  men  as  Henry  Ward 
Beecher,  John  G.  Whittier,  Henry  C.  Potter,  and 
Oliver  Wendell  Holmes.  By  the  end  of  the  year, 
the  Audubon  Society  had  sixteen  thousand  mem- 
bers with  over  three  hundred  local  secretaries  scat- 
tered throughout  the  United  States  and  in  foreign 
countries.  By  August  of  the  following  year  the 
membership  had  reached  thirty-eight  thousand. 


WORK  OF  THE  AUDUBON  SOCIETIES    175 

In  January,  1887,  "Forest  and  Stream"  started 
the  publication  of  the  "Audubon  Magazine,"  to 
serve  as  the  special  organ  of  the  Audubon  Society. 
This  contained  articles  of  general  interest  on  bird 
life.  After  being  published  for  two  years,  the  maga- 
zine was  discontinued,  and  with  it  passed  the  first 
Audubon  movement. 

For  a  number  of  years  the  enemies  of  bird  life 
again  held  sway  and  there  was  little  organized  ef- 
fort in  the  interest  of  bird-protection.  By  1895  the 
cause  of  bird-protection  was  at  its  lowest  ebb. 

The  American  Ornithologists'  Union.  The  early 
history  of  the  Audubon  movement  is  closely  bound 
up  with  the  American  Ornithologists'  Union,  an  or- 
ganization composed  of  the  leading  bird-students 
of  the  country.  In  1884  a  committee  on  bird-pro- 
tection was  appointed  by  the  Union.  This  did  very 
effective  work  in  gathering  statistics  and  publishing 
bulletins  to  arouse  the  public  to  the  need  of  bird- 
protection.  This  committee  worked  in  conjunction 
with  the  National  Committee  of  Audubon  Societies, 
and  during  one  year  the  same  man  was  chairman  of 
both  committees. 

The  second  Audubon  movement.  In  1896  was 
begun  the  second  Audubon  movement,  which  has 
continued  with  constantly  increasing  momentum 
up  to  the  present  time.  In  that  year  state  Audubon 
societies  were  organized  in  Massachusetts  and  Penn- 
sylvania, and  these  were  rapidly  followed  within  the 


176  BIRD  FRIENDS 

next  few  years  with  organizations  in  other  States, 
until  now  there  are  societies  in  thirty-seven  States 
and  in  the  District  of  Columbia. 

The  National  Association  of  Audubon  Societies. 
After  these  state  societies  were  organized,  it  was 
felt  that  there  should  be  a  central  national  organi- 
zation to  bind  the  others  together  and  direct  their 
work.  Accordingly,  in  1902,  a  federation,  known  as 
the  National  Committee  of  Audubon  Societies,  was 
formed,  composed  of  one  member  from  each  state 
society.  The  work  of  the  committee  grew  rapidly 
and  in  1905  led  to  the  organization  of  the  National 
Association  of  Audubon  Societies  for  the  Protection 
of  Wild  Birds  and  Animals.  Besides  being  a  medium 
of  exchange  between  the  several  state  societies,  this 
association  has  taken  on  other  functions,  such  as  the 
formation  of  new  societies,  encouragement  of  proper 
legislation,  promotion  of  educational  work,  and  other 
lines  of  work,  and  it  is  to-day  the  mainstay  and  back- 
bone of  the  whole  Audubon  movement.  The  objects 
of  the  organization  are  stated  as  follows  in  a  circular 
issued  by  the  Association :  — 

The  objects  of  the  Association  are  to  arouse  in  a 
greater  degree  the  public  conscience  on  the  important 
subject  of  preserving  wild  birds  and  game  animals  of  the 
country  and  to  secure  protection  at  all  times  for  the 
valuable  non-game  bird  life. 

The  credit  for  the  initial  success  of  this  movement 
is  due  largely  to  the  enthusiasm  and  untiring  effort 


WORK  OF  THE  AUDUBON  SOCIETIES    177 

of  its  president,  Mr.  William  Dutcher,  who  since 
1910  has  been  unable  on  account  of  sickness  to  take 
any  active  part  in  the  work  of  the  Association.  Since 
that  time  the  chief  executive  officer  has  been  the 
secretary,  Mr.  T.  Gilbert  Pearson.  Under  his  ener- 
getic management  the  Association  has  made  remark- 
able growth,  and  many  new  lines  of  activity  have 
been  developed. 

The  following  are  the  classes  of  membership  in  the 
Association :  — 

$5  annually  pays  a  sustaining  membership. 

$100  paid  at  one  time  constitutes  a  life  member- 
ship. 

$1000  constitutes  a  person  a  patron. 

$5000  constitutes  a  person  a  founder. 

$25,000  constitutes  a  person  a  benefactor. 

In  1915,  there  were  2558  sustaining  members, 
244  life  members,  3  patrons,  1  founder,  and  1  bene- 
factor (deceased).  The  fees  of  the  life  members  are 
added  to  the  endowment  fund.  The  total  disburse- 
ments for  the  year  1915  were  $93,000.  The  funds 
to  meet  these  expenses  are  derived  chiefly  from  three 
sources,  the  returns  from  the  endowment  fund, 
which  now  amounts  to  about  $400,000,  the  dues 
of  the  sustaining  members,  and  special  contribu- 
tions. 

In  the  work  for  bird-protection  many  agencies 
have  been  active,  but  the  National  Association  of 
Audubon  Societies  has  been  the  prime  mover  which 


178  BIRD  FRIENDS 

has  brought  these  agencies  together  to  work  in 
unison. 

The  work  of  the  Association  has  been  extended 
in  many  lines,  chief  of  which  are  the  following: 
(1)  legislation,  (2)  warden  work,  (3)  egret-protec- 
tion, (4)  publications,  (5)  junior  Audubon  classes, 
(6)  field  agents,  (7)  department  of  applied  orni- 
thology, (8)  arranging  for  bird  courses  in  summer 
schools,  (9)  establishing  bird  sanctuaries. 

Legislation.  The  Association  first  gave  its  atten- 
tion to  securing  proper  laws  protecting  birds.  The 
American  Ornithologists'  Union  had  prepared  a 
model  law  for  the  protection  of  song-birds,  and  this 
was  brought  to  the  attention  of  legislatures  in  the 
various  States,  and  efforts  were  made  to  secure  its 
passage.  These  efforts  have  been  almost  uniformly 
successful  and  now  this  law  has  been  adopted  by 
forty  States.  Efforts  were  also  made  to  secure  bet- 
ter laws  for  the  protection  of  game-birds,  such  as 
prohibiting  spring  shooting,  shortening  the  open 
season,  limiting  the  number  of  birds  that  may  be 
shot,  removing  small  birds  from  the  game  list,  regu- 
lating the  kind  of  weapons  that  may  be  used,  and 
prohibiting  the  sale  of  game.  Great  progress  has 
been  made  along  all  these  lines. 

When  state  legislatures  are  in  session,  all  bills 
relating  to  bird  life  are  carefully  studied,  and  any 
bill  that  tends  to  remove  protection  from  valuable 
birds  is  opposed,  and  bills  that  give  birds  more 


WORK  OF  THE  AUDUBON  SOCIETIES    179 

protection  are  sanctioned.  The  Association  has  also 
been  active  in  furthering  national  legislation. 

Warden  work.  Many  of  the  water-birds  nest  to- 
gether in  large  colonies  where  thousands  of  birds 
nest  within  a  small  area.  The  Association  employs 
about  twenty-five  wardens  to  guard  these  colonies 
during  the  breeding-season.  The  colonies  which  are 
thus  protected  are  situated  on  the  islands  off  the 
coast  of  Maine,  along  the  coasts  of  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  Virginia,  Florida,  and  in  the  lakes  of  Michi- 
gan. It  was  estimated  that  during  the  season  of 
1913  about  two  million  birds  were  protected  in 
these  colonies,  and  that  during  1915  at  least  half 
a  million  young  birds  were  brought  to  maturity. 

Egret  protection.  For  many  years  the  Association 
has  been  endeavoring  to  save  the  egrets,  whose 
extermination  was  threatened  by  the  demands  of  the 
milliners.  One  of  its  wardens  was  shot  while  pro- 
tecting colonies  of  these  birds,  and  their  numbers 
were  reduced  to  such  an  extent  that  it  seemed  doubt- 
ful whether  these  beautiful  birds  could  be  saved, 
but  persistent  efforts  have  been  made  and  the  Asso- 
ciation has  raised  a  special  egret  fund  to  be  used 
in  protecting  these  birds,  and  the  outlook  is  now 
very  encouraging  for  their  preservation.  During 
1915  the  Association  had  seventeen  special  wardens 
protecting  these  egret  colonies,  which  are  located 
in  Florida,  South  Carolina,  and  Missouri.  During 
the  season  of  1915  these  wardens  had  under  their 


180  BIRD  FRIENDS 

care  twenty  distinct  rookeries  which  contained  about 
three  thousand  snowy  herons  and  seven  thousand 
egrets.  In  these  rookeries  many  other  water-birds 
are  also  protected,  which  were  estimated  in  the  sea- 
son of  1914  to  number  about  half  a  million. 

Publications.  One  of  the  most  important  lines  of 
work  carried  on  by  the  Association  is  the  issuing 
of  its  various  publications  for  the  education  of  the 
public  on  bird  matters.  First  may  be  mentioned  the 
magazine  "Bird-Lore,"  which  is  the  official  organ 
of  the  Association.  This  was  established  in  1899 
and  stands  to-day  as  the  leading  popular  bird  maga- 
zine in  the  country.  The  fact  that  Mr.  Frank  M. 
Chapman  is  editor  is  guaranty  of  the  high  standard 
of  the  magazine.  This  is  published  six  times  yearly, 
and  is  sent  free  to  members  of  the  Association.  The 
price  to  others  is  one  dollar. 

Each  issue  contains  two  colored  plates  of  birds, 
one  of  which  is  accompanied  by  a  four-page  insert 
descriptive  of  the  bird's  habits.  The  other  picture 
is  accompanied  by  a  migration  table  based  on  the 
data  furnished  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Bio- 
logical Survey.  The  magazine  contains  interesting 
articles  by  well-known  bird-students,  which  are  us- 
ually accompanied  by  photographs  taken  from  life. 
There  is  a  special  school  department  for  teachers 
and  children,  in  which  are  given  suggestions  to  teach- 
ers for  teaching  about  birds,  and  to  children  on  how 
to  study  birds;  and  opportunities  are  given  for  the 


WORK  OF  THE  AUDUBON  SOCIETIES    181 

accounts  of  their  observations  to  be  published  in 
"  Bird-Lore."  Brief  notes  are  given  of  the  work  being 
done  by  the  Audubon  Societies,  and  in  the  Novem- 
ber-December issue  is  given  the  annual  report  of 
the  National  Association.  Reviews  of  books  and 
magazine  articles  relating  to  birds  are  given.  Vol- 
ume 17,  for  1915,  contained  560  pages.  The  maga- 
zine is  published  at  Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania. 

After  the  educational  leaflets  are  published  in 
"Bird-Lore,"  they  are  printed  separately  and  sold 
for  two  cents  each,  including  the  four-page  leaflet, 
the  colored  plate,  and  an  outline  drawing.  Other 
special  leaflets  are  issued  from  time  to  time.  During 
the  year  1914  nearly  four  million  colored  plates  and 
educational  leaflets  were  issued.  About  ninety  leaf- 
lets have  now  been  published,  some  of  which  have 
been  bound  together  in  book  form. 

The  Association  publishes  annually  over  six  mil- 
lion pages  of  literature  devoted  to  bird-protection, 
and  at  the  office  in  New  York  City  twenty  clerks 
are  employed  to  look  after  its  business.  It  has  for 
sale  nearly  two  hundred  colored  lantern-slides  of 
birds.  A  very  satisfactory  field-glass  for  bird-study 
is  offered  for  sale  for  six  dollars.  The  Association 
acts  as  a  purchasing  agent  for  its  members  in  se- 
curing anything  wanted  in  the  line  of  bird-study 
and  Audubon  work.  A  circular  giving  full  details 
may  be  had  on  application  to  the  Association  at 
1974  Broadway,  New  York  City. 


182  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Junior  Audubon  classes.  Perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant work  the  Association  has  been  doing  dur- 
ing the  last  few  years  is  its  effort  to  interest  children 
in  birds  through  the  medium  of  the  schools.  For 
several  years  the  following  plan  has  been  used:  In 
the  early  spring  circulars  are  sent  to  teachers,  ex- 
plaining the  method  of  organizing  junior  Audubon 
classes.  Each  child  who  wishes  to  join  pays  ten 
cents  as  the  annual  dues.  He  receives  in  return  ten 
educational  leaflets  with  the  colored  plate  and  out- 
line of  some  common  bird,  and  a  bird  button  with 
a  small  picture  of  a  robin  on  it  and  the  inscription 
"Audubon  Society."  If  the  club  numbers  ten  mem- 
bers, "Bird-Lore"  is  sent  free  to  the  teacher  for  one 
year.  The  leaflets  alone  would  ordinarily  cost 
twenty  cents,  but  the  Association  is  able  to  sell 
them  at  the  rate  of  one  cent,  because  it  has  a  special 
fund,  contributed  by  a  friend  for  carrying  on  this 
work.  After  the  club  is  formed,  it  can  meet  as  often 
as  it  wishes  and  carry  out  such  programs  as  the 
teacher  and  children  may  devise.  Later  in  the  sea- 
son a  letter  is  sent  to  each  leader  of  a  junior  class 
offering  prizes  for  the  best  and  most  interesting 
photographs  of  junior  Audubon  classes,  the  photo- 
graph to  be  accompanied  with  a  brief  account  of 
the  work  of  the  class. 

This  movement  first  started  in  the  South  in  1910 
with  ten  thousand  pupils  enrolled,  and  since  then 
the  movement  has  grown  steadily  and  spread  all 


WORK  OF  THE  AUDUBON  SOCIETIES     183 

over  the  United  States.  In  1915  there  were  7723 
classes,  including  152,179  members;  and  in  1916, 
9901  classes,  including  205,138  members. 

"Bird-Lore"  for  July-August,  1915,  gives  the 
photographs  of  the  clubs  to  which  the  prizes  were 
awarded,  and  the  accompanying  explanation  sent 
by  the  teacher.  The  first  prize  was  given  to  the 
West  North  Street  School,  Canton,  Ohio.  Following 
is  the  letter  sent  from  this  school :  - 

April  [writes  the  teacher  who  conducts  this  vigorous 
class]  was  the  "Month  of  Birds"  at  West  North  Street 
School.  During  the  spring  vacation  wren  and  bluebird 
houses  to  the  number  of  one  hundred  and  thirty  were 
placed  in  yards  adjoining  the  homes  of  the  members. 
These  houses  had  been  built  by  the  older  boys,  each 
one  making  two,  so  that  the  girls  also  might  enjoy  the 
society  of  bird-families  near  their  homes.  For  Bird- 
Month  each  schoolroom  displayed  pictures  of  birds, 
many  were  those  sent  with  the  leaflets,  and  painted  by 
the  pupils  themselves.  The  halls  were  also  decorated, 
each  room  taking  a  section  and  trying  to  outdo  the 
others  in  the  originality  of  their  decorations. 

Birds  are  studied  in  all  departments  of  the  school. 
The  pupils  in  the  upper  grades  used  the  pictures  of  the 
Educational  Leaflets  of  this  and  former  years  in  the  lan- 
tern, and  each  one  gave  us  a  talk  about  his  bird  as  it 
appeared  on  the  screen.  Monday  morning  is  the  most 
interesting  time  of  all,  as  so  many  birds  have  been  ob- 
served during  the  two  preceding  holidays,  and  every  one 
is  anxious  to  hear  the  new  reports  and  to  add  new  birds 
to  their  list.  This  led  to  our  boys  being  invited  to  speak 
to  the  boys  and  girls  in  other  buildings,  and  tell  them 
why  and  how  birds  should  be  protected.  This  was  re- 


184  BIRD  FRIENDS 

garded  by  them  as  a  great  compliment.  They  went  out 
in  twos,  on  the  afternoon  of  Arbor  Day,  carrying  with 
them  a  wren  house  and  a  bluebird  house.  It  was  a  pleas- 
ing sight.  We  heard  very  flattering  reports  of  their  work, 
and  we  are  certain  they  won  many  new  friends  for  the 
birds,  and  had  an  enjoyable  and  instructive  experience. 

Field  agents.  During  the  year  1915  the  Associa- 
tion employed  six  field  agents  who  gave  their  time 
to  lecturing,  attending  the  sessions  of  legislatures  to 
look  after  bird  legislation,  securing  new  members 
for  the  National  Association,  and  in  general  pro- 
moting the  interests  of  the  Association  and  the  cause 
for  which  it  stands.  Illustrated  lectures  are  given 
to  audiences  of  school -children,  women's  clubs, 
granges,  and  other  organizations. 

Department  of  Applied  Ornithology.  There  has 
been  recently  organized  a  new  department  of  the 
National  Association,  called  the  Department  of 
Applied  Ornithology,  in  charge  of  Mr.  Herbert  K. 
Job.  The  purpose  of  this  department  is  to  furnish 
information  by  means  of  lectures  and  bulletins  on 
methods  of  attracting  birds  around  homes  and  farms, 
and  on  methods  of  raising  wild  game-birds  by  arti- 
ficial means.  Two  bulletins  have  so  far  been  issued, 
one  on  the  propagation  of  water-fowl  and  another 
on  the  propagation  of  upland  game-birds. 

Summer  courses  in  bird-study.  During  the 
summer  of  1915  courses  in  bird-study  were  given 
under  the  auspices  of  the  National  Association  at 


WORK  OF  THE  AUDUBON  SOCIETIES    185 

eight  summer  schools,  six  of  which  were  in  state 
universities. 

Bird  sanctuaries.  The  Association  has  been  in- 
fluential in  establishing  bird  sanctuaries,  either  buy- 
ing or  leasing  land  at  its  own  expense,  or  interest- 
ing others  to  do  so.  It  originated  the  system  of 
federal  bird  reservations  and  cooperates  financially 
with  the  Government  in  protecting  them.  It  con- 
tributes financially  for  feeding  birds  in  winter,  for 
protecting  big  game,  and  for  prosecuting  violators 
of  the  law. 

Needs  of  the  Association.  The  needs  of  the 
Association  are  set  forth  in  a  recent  circular  as 
follows :  — 

Needs.  The  National  Association  depends  for  its  sup- 
port upon  the  income  from  a  small  endowment,  and  the 
contributions  of  its  members  and  friends. 

The  present  income  is  totally  inadequate  to  meet  the 
urgent  and  tremendously  growing  demands  for  aid  from 
all  parts  of  the  country. 

Persons  interested  in  the  study  or  preservation  of  wild 
birds  or  animals  from  any  standpoint  are  invited  to  unite 
with  us  in  this  great  economic  movement. 

A  contribution  of  five  dollars  or  more  pays  the  fee  of  a 
sustaining  member  for  one  year. 

A  gift  of  one  hundred  dollars  constitutes  the  donor  a 
life  member. 

All  members  receive  the  magazine  "Bird-Lore"  and 
the  various  publications  of  the  Association  as  they  ap- 
pear. 


186  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Application  Blank 

Being  in  sympathy  with  the  objects  of  THE  NATIONAL 
ASSOCIATION  OF  AUDUBON  SOCIETIES  FOR  THE  PROTEC- 
TION OF  WILD  BIRDS  AND  ANIMALS  (incorporated),  I  here- 
by agree  to  become  a  SUSTAINING  MEMBER,  and  enclose 
the  sum  of  $5.00,  the  first  annual  fee. 

Name 

Street  

City 

State 

Please  mail  to  office  of  the  Association, 

1974  Broadway,  New  York  City. 

$100  paid  at  one  time  constitutes  a  life  membership. 

State  societies.  There  are  now  state  Audubon 
societies  in  thirty-seven  States  and  in  the  District  of 
Columbia.  As  an  illustration  of  the  work  of  these 
societies,  a  brief  summary  of  the  activities  of  the 
Massachusetts  Audubon  Society  for  the  year  1914 
is  given.  It  had  225  life  members  and  2200  sustain- 
ing members.  The  Society  occupies  an  office  in 
Boston  where  exhibitions  on  various  features  of 
bird  life  are  kept  open  to  the  public.  During  the  win- 
ter it  took  steps  to  encourage  the  feeding  of  birds 
throughout  the  State.  Junior  Audubon  classes  were 
formed  in  cooperation  with  the  National  Association 
of  Audubon  Societies.  A  bird  calendar  is  published 
each  year  and  the  Audubon  bird  charts  are  sold. 
It  holds  an  annual  meeting  in  the  spring. 

Birdcraft  sanctuary.  The  Connecticut  Audubon 
Society  has  recently  created  a  bird  sanctuary.  This 


BIRD    ISLAND,   FLORIDA 
Reservation  owned  by  the  National  Association  of  Audubon  Societies 


CALIFORNIA    MURRES    ON    THREE    ARCH    ROCKS    OFF    THE 

OREGON   COAST,  ONE   OF  THE   GOVERNMENT 

BIRD    RESERVATIONS 


WORK  OF  THE  AUDUBON  SOCIETIES    187 

consists  of  ten  acres  of  land  situated  just  outside  the 
city  of  Fairfield.  It  has  been  surrounded  by  a  cat- 
proof  fence.  Shrubs  have  been  planted  and  nesting- 
boxes  and  winter  feeding-devices  installed.  A  small 
museum  has  been  built,  in  which  birds  are  displayed 
with  appropriate  surroundings.  The  museum  and 
sanctuary  are  open  to  the  public  under  certain  re- 
strictions. A  warden  is  employed  constantly  to  take 
charge  of  the  sanctuary  and  museum. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

BIRD-PROTECTION   BY   GOVERNMENTS  —  STATE 
AND   NATIONAL 

Work  of  State  Governments 

BRIEF  mention  has  been  made  in  a  previous  chap- 
ter of  the  work  done  by  the  Audubon  Societies  in 
procuring  legislation.  The  nature  of  this  legislation 
may  now  be  examined  a  little  more  carefully. 

History  of  legislation.  The  first  laws  for  the 
protection  of  song-birds  were  passed  during  the  last 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  but  it  was  not  till  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  that  laws  pro- 
tecting these  birds  began  to  be  general.  These  were 
first  adopted  in  the  States  in  the  northeastern 
United  States,  later  by  those  in  the  western  United 
States,  and  still  more  recently  by  the  States  in  the 
South,  till  now  every  State  in  the  Union  accords 
some  degree  of  protection  to  the  song-birds. 

In  the  first  laws  the  distinction  between  the  in- 
sectivorous birds,  which  were  to  be  protected  at  all 
times,  and  the  game-birds,  for  which  open  seasons 
were  to  be  allowed,  was  not  clearly  defined.  In 
1886  the  Bird  Protection  Committee  of  the  Ameri- 
can Ornithologists'  Union  drafted  a  law  which  has 
since  been  known  as  the  Model  A.O.U.  Law,  and 


BIRD-PROTECTION  BY  GOVERNMENTS    189 

has  formed  the  basis  for  nearly  all  bird  legislation 
since  that  time.  This  law,  with  some  modifications, 
has  been  adopted  in  forty  States.  The  provisions 
of  the  law  may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows :  — 

1.  A  definition  of  what  constitutes  game-birds. 

2.  A  list  of  injurious  birds. 

3.  Protection  of  all  other  birds,  their  nests  and  eggs. 

4.  Permission  to  collect  birds  for  scientific  pur- 
poses. 

5.  Statement  of  the  fine  for  violation  of  the  law. 

Changes  still  needed  in  some  States  are  a  reduc- 
tion of  the  number  of  birds  exempted  from  protec- 
tion so  as  to  exclude  only  the  injurious  birds,  espe- 
cially among  the  hawks  and  owls,  and  the  removal 
of  all  song-birds  from  the  game  list.  More  than  half 
of  the  States  have  laws  prohibiting  Sunday  shoot- 
ing, thus  making  this  a  closed  season  for  all  birds. 

Bird  Day.  Bird  Day  is  now  officially  recognized 
in  the  following  nine  States :  California,  Connecti- 
cut, Delaware,  Illinois,  Louisiana,  Minnesota,  Ohio, 
Virginia,  and  Wisconsin. 

Game  laws.  For  game-birds  a  separate  set  of  laws 
is  enacted  which  prescribes  regulations  regarding: 
(1)  the  open  season  when  game  may  be  shot;  (2)  the 
shipment  of  game  outside  of  the  State;  (3)  the  sale 
of  game;  (4)  the  bag-limit;  (5)  the  procuring  of  li- 
censes for  hunting  and  shipping  game. 

Formerly  spring  and  summer  shooting  were  per- 
mitted, but  now  nearly  all  States  forbid  shooting 


190  BIRD  FRIENDS 

at  these  seasons,  and  limit  it  to  the  fall  and  winter, 
or  fall  alone.  The  length  of  the  open  season  ranges 
from  two  to  four  months.  Sometimes  when  the 
bird  is  very  rare  no  open  season  is  allowed. 

Most  of  the  States  prohibit  export  of  all  game 
protected  by  local  laws,  except  that  sportsmen  may 
take  out  a  limited  amount  under  special  restrictions. 
Twenty-two  States  prohibit  the  sale  of  all  pro- 
tected game  at  all  seasons.  Twenty-five  others  pro- 
hibit the  sale  of  certain  kinds  of  game  at  all  seasons. 
About  two  thirds  of  the  States  permit  the  sale  of 
game  raised  in  captivity. 

All  States,  with  three  exceptions,  have  laws  limit- 
ing the  amount  of  game  that  may  be  killed  or  had 
in  possession  in  a  day.  The  number  allowed,  ranging 
from  fifteen  to  fifty,  is  too  large  to  afford  adequate 
protection  to  birds.  Following  is  the  Minnesota 
law:  "Licensed  resident:  15  ducks,  10  other  birds 
combined,  a  day;  45  ducks,  30  other  kinds  com- 
bined, in  possession." 

In  all  the  States  licenses  must  be  secured  by  non- 
residents before  they  can  hunt  any  or  certain  kinds 
of  game.  This  fee  varies  from  ten  to  twenty-five 
dollars.  In  forty-two  States  residents  are  also 
required  to  secure  a  license,  but  the  fees  are  much 
smaller,  usually  about  a  dollar.  In  about  half  of  the 
States  a  special  kind  of  hunting-license,  called  the 
"alien  license"  has  been  adopted  to  restrict  hunting 
by  persons  who  are  not  citizens  of  the  country.  In 


BIRD-PROTECTION  BY  GOVERNMENTS    191 

some  States  aliens  are  not  allowed  to  hunt  or  to  own 
guns. 

The  protection  of  game-birds  has  a  practical  side 
as  furnishing  a  supply  of  food.  Dr.  W.  T.  Hornaday 
estimates  that  if  our  game-birds  and  game  quadru- 
peds had  been  properly  conserved,  they  would  now  be 
yielding  each  year  ten  million  dollars'  worth  of  food. 

Summary.  Summarizing  the  legislation  of  recent 
years,  we  may  note  that  the  tendency  is  constantly 
and  consistently  toward  giving  birds  more  complete 
protection.  Following  are  some  tendencies  as  shown 
in  recent  state  legislation :  — 

The  protection  at  all  seasons  of  all  birds  except 
game-birds  and  injurious  birds. 

Removing  all  song-birds  from  the  list  of  game-birds . 

Granting  a  prolonged  closed  season  for  game-birds 
which  are  very  scarce. 

Shortening  the  open  season  for  game-birds. 

Prohibiting  spring,  summer,  and  winter  shooting. 

Reducing  the  bag  limit. 

Prohibiting  the  export  of  game-birds. 

Prohibiting  the  sale  of  game-birds. 

Limiting  the  shooting  of  game-birds  to  those  who 
have  obtained  licenses. 

Prohibiting  the  sale  of  feathers  of  wild  birds. 

Prohibiting  the  use  of  feathers  of  wild  birds  for 
millinery  purposes. 

Restrictions  on  the  kinds  of  weapons  that  may  be 
used. 


192  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Work  of  the  National  Government 

The  United  States  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey. 
One  of  the  most  important  steps  ever  taken  in  this 
country  in  the  interest  of  bird-protection  was  the 
establishment,  in  1885,  of  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Biological  Survey,  as  a  result  of  the  activities  of 
the  American  Ornithologists'  Union.  This  Bureau 
began  the  study  of  the  economic  relations  of  birds. 
The  findings  of  this  study  have  been  the  foundation 
for  nearly  all  the  legislation  in  this  country  for  the 
protection  of  song-birds  and  birds  of  prey.  The  facts 
here  found  regarding  the  food  of  birds  have  been 
the  chief  arguments  used  in  influencing  legisla- 
tures to  pass  laws  protecting  birds.  The  Audubon 
Societies  have  worked  in  close  touch  with  the  Bureau 
of  Biological  Survey.  All  important  plans  and 
movements  of  the  National  Association  are  adopted 
after  consultation  with  the  Bureau. 

The  work  of  the  Bureau  was  first  started  by  Dr. 
C.  Hart  Merriam  who,  with  one  assistant,  began  to 
investigate  the  economic  relations  of  birds  to  agri- 
culture. The  number  of  men  employed  has  been 
increased  and  the  scope  of  the  field  enlarged,  till  it 
now  includes  the  study  of  the  economic  relations  of 
mammals,  the  geographic  distribution  of  plants  and 
animals,  and  the  supervision  of  matters  pertaining  to 
game-protection  and  the  importation  of  foreign  birds 
and  animals;  and  now  the  preparation  of  the  regu- 


BIRD-PROTECTION  BY  GOVERNMENTS    193 

lations  for  the  new  Migratory  Bird  Law  has  been 
entrusted  to  the  Bureau. 

An  explanation  of  the  methods  used  in  investi- 
gating the  food  of  birds  has  already  been  given  in 
Chapter  VII. 

The  Lacey  Act.  The  first  federal  law  passed  deal- 
ing with  the  protection  of  birds  was  the  Lacey  Act, 
approved  in  1900.  This  was  important  as  establish- 
ing the  principle  that  the  protection  of  birds  came 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  National  Government. 
It  contains  three  main  divisions:  (1) .it  places  the 
preservation  of  birds  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture;  (2)  it  authorizes  the  Se- 
cretary of  Agriculture  to  regulate  the  importation 
of  foreign  birds  and  animals,  and  prohibits  the  intro- 
duction of  the  mongoose,  "flying  foxes,"  English 
sparrow,  starling,  or  other  species  which  may  be 
declared  injurious;  and  (3)  it  prohibits  interstate 
traffic  in  birds  killed  in  violation  of  state  laws. 

This  last  provision  was  an  important  step  in  help- 
ing to  protect  the  game-birds,  as  hitherto  there  had 
been  much  shipping  and  sale  of  game  out  of  the 
State  where  it  was  killed. 

The  Migratory  Bird  Law.  Since  the  passing  of 
the  Lacey  Act  various  bills  have  been  introduced 
into  Congress  whose  purpose  was  to  protect  mi- 
gratory birds.  One  was  introduced  into  the  House 
of  Representatives  in  1904  by  Hon.  George  Shiras, 
3d.  Another  was  introduced  in  1908  by  Hon.  John 


194  BIRD  FRIENDS 

W.  Weeks,  and  again  one  in  1909  by  the  same  author, 
but  none  of  these  received  favorable  consideration. 
Again,  in  1911,  Hon.  John  W.  Weeks  introduced  a 
bill  in  the  House,  and  later  Senator  McLean,  of 
Connecticut,  introduced  an  identical  bill  in  the 
Senate.  By  this  time  enough  sentiment  had  been 
aroused  in  the  country  regarding  the  protection  of 
birds,  so  that  the  bill  was  given  serious  consideration. 
The  friends  of  birds  cooperated  and  waged  a  long 
and  successful  campaign  in  favor  of  this  bill.  Gover- 
nors and  legislatures  were  asked  to  send  resolutions 
to  Congress  endorsing  it.  Sportsmen's  organizations, 
zoological  societies,  and  scientific  bodies  passed 
resolutions  and  sent  them  to  their  Representatives 
in  Congress.  The  Audubon  Societies  sent  thousands 
of  letters  and  telegrams  to  Senators  and  Represen- 
tatives. Some  of  the  organizations  whose  officers 
and  members  aided  in  the  campaign  are :  The  Ameri- 
can Game  Protective  and  Propagation  Association, 
the  Camp-fire  Club  of  America,  the  New  York 
Zoological  Society,  the  Boone  and  Crockett  Club, 
the  National  Federation  of  Women's  Clubs,  the 
Long  Island  Sportsmen's  Association,  the  State 
Audubon  societies,  and  numerous  sportsmen's 
clubs  scattered  throughout  the  country.  The  game 
commissioners  of  nearly  every  State  and  thousands 
of  individual  workers  strove  for  the  passage  of  the 
Weeks-McLean  bill. 

The  efforts  of  these  friends  of  the  birds  were 


BIRD-PROTECTION  BY  GOVERNMENTS    195 

finally  successful  and  the  bill  was  passed  without  one 
dissenting  vote  in  the  Senate,  and  with  only  fifteen 
votes  cast  against  it  in  the  House.  One  of  the  last  of- 
ficial acts  of  President  Taft  was  the  signing  of  this 
bill  on  March  4,  1913. 

This  was  the  most  important  step  ever  taken  by 
any  country  in  the  interest  of  bird-protection.  Fol- 
lowing is  the  text  of  the  law :  — 

SECTION  1.  Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of 
Representatives  of  the  United  States  of  America  in  Congress 
assembled,  That  all  wild  geese,  wild  swan,  brant,  wild 
ducks,  snipe,  plover,  woodcocks,  rail,  wild  pigeons,  and 
all  other  migratory  game  and  insectivorous  birds,  which 
in  their  northern  and  southern  migrations  pass  through, 
or  do  not  remain  permanently  the  entire  year  within  the 
borders  of  any  State  or  Territory,  shall  hereafter  be 
deemed  to  be  within  the  custody  and  protection  of  the 
Government  of  the  United  States,  and  shall  not  be  de- 
stroyed or  taken  contrary  to  regulations  hereinafter  pro- 
vided therefor. 

SECTION  2.  That  the  Department  of  Agriculture  is 
hereby  authorized  to  adopt  suitable  regulations  to  give 
effect  to  the  previous  section  by  prescribing  and  fixing 
closed  seasons,  having  due  regard  to  the  zones  of  tempera- 
ture, breeding  habits,  and  times  and  lines  of  migratory 
flight,  thereby  enabling  the  department  to  select  and  des- 
ignate suitable  districts  for  different  portions  of  the  coun- 
try within  which  said  closed  seasons  it  shall  not  be  lawful 
to  shoot,  or  by  any  device  kill  or  seize  and  capture  migra- 
tory birds  within  the  protection  of  this  law,  and  by  de- 
claring penalties  by  fine  of  not  more  than  one  hundred 
dollars  or  imprisonment  for  ninety  days,  or  both,  for  viola- 
tion of  such  regulations. 

SECTION  3.  That  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  after 


196  BIRD  FRIENDS 

the  preparation  of  said  regulations,  shall  cause  the  same 
to  be  made  public,  and  shall  allow  a  period  of  three 
months  in  which  said  regulations  may  be  examined  and 
considered  before  final  adoption,  permitting,  when  deemed 
proper,  public  hearings  thereon,  and  after  final  adoption  to 
cause  same  to  be  engrossed  and  submitted  to  the  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  for  approval:  Provided  however, 
That  nothing  herein  contained  shall  be  deemed  to  affect  or 
interfere  with  the  local  laws  of  the  States  and  Territories 
for  the  protection  of  non-migratory  game  or  other  birds 
resident  and  breeding  within  their  borders,  nor  to  prevent 
the  States  and  Territories  from  enacting  laws  and  regula- 
tions to  promote  and  render  efficient  the  regulations  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  provided  under  this  statute. 
SECTION  4.  That  there  is  hereby  appropriated,  out  of 
any  moneys  hi  the  Treasury  not  otherwise  appropriated, 
for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  the  provisions  of  this  act, 
the  sum  of  ten  thousand  dollars. 

This  bill  applies  only  to  the  migratory  birds  and  not 
to  the  permanent  residents,  and  regulates  the  closed 
and  open  seasons  for  game-birds,  but  the  States  are 
left  to  regulate  matters  such  as  the  kinds  of  guns 
that  may  be  used,  sale  of  game  within  the  State, 
and  bag-limits.  This  bill  does  not  take  the  place  of 
the  state  laws  protecting  birds,  but  is  added  to  them, 
so  that  an  offender  may  be  prosecuted  twice,  once 
under  the  state  laws  and  again  under  the  federal  law. 

Advantages  of  federal  law.  The  advantages  of 
this  federal  law  over  the  state  laws  are  many.  First, 
it  insures  a  uniform  regulation.  Under  the  state 
laws  a  bird  may  be  protected  in  one  State  and  killed 
in  another,  as  was  true  of  the  robin. 


BIRD-PROTECTION  BY  GOVERNMENTS    197 

Second,  it  controls  the  open  season  so  as  to  give 
better  protection  to  game-birds.  Under  the  state 
regulations  a  bird  might  be  shot  from  the  time  it 
left  its  home  in  the  North  all  the  way  on  its  migra- 
tion South.  The  state  control  of  game  has  proved  a 
failure.  No  State  has  given  its  game  adequate  pro- 
tection. The  number  of  game-birds  has  been  stead- 
ily decreasing  under  state  control,  some  being  threat- 
ened with  extermination.  It  seems  almost  certain 
that  under  federal  control  birds  will  be  more  effec- 
tively protected,  and  that  their  numbers  will  soon 
begin  to  increase;  and  already  this  increase  has  been 
noted  in  some  localities. 

Third,  it  means  permanency  of  bird-protection. 
Under  the  state  systems  at  the  meeting  of  nearly 
every  legislature  efforts  are  made  to  repeal  some 
of  the  laws  protecting  birds  and  to  pass  new  laws 
which  permit  the  killing  of  more  birds. 

Fourth,  federal  laws  are  generally  better  enforced 
and  more  feared  than  state  laws,  and  so  are  more 
effective. 

The  preparation  of  the  regulations  for  the  protec- 
tion of  migratory  birds  was  entrusted  to  a  committee 
of  experts  from  the  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey. 
These  Regulations  form  one  of  the  most  important 
scientific  documents  ever  issued  on  the  subject  of 
bird-protection.  Portions  of  these  regulations  are 
quoted  below,  as  amended  August  16,  1916:  — 


198  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Regulation  1:  Definitions 

For  the  purposes  of  these  regulations  the  following 
shall  be  considered  migratory  game  birds :  — 

(a)  Anatidse,  or  waterfowl,  including  brant,  wild  ducks, 
geese,  and  swans. 

(6)  Gruidse,  or  cranes,  including  little  brown,  sandhill, 
and  whooping  cranes. 

(c)  Rallidae,  or  rails,  including  coots,  gallinules,  and 
sora  and  other  rails. 

(d)  Limicolae,  or  shore  birds,  including  avocets,  curlew, 
dowitchers,  godwits,  knots,  oyster-catchers,  phalaropes, 
plover,  sandpipers,  snipe,  stilts,  surf-birds,  turnstones, 
willet,  woodcock,  and  yellow-legs. 

(e)  Columbidse  or  pigeons,  including  doves  and  wild 
pigeons. 

For  the  purposes  of  these  regulations  the  following  shall 
be  considered  migratory  insectivorous  birds :  — 

(/)  Bobolinks,  catbirds,  chickadees,  cuckoos,  nickers, 
flycatchers,  grosbeaks,  hummingbirds,  kinglets,  martins, 
meadowlarks,  nighthawks  or  bullbats,  nuthatches,  ori- 
oles, robins,  shrikes,  swallows,  swifts,  tanagers,  titmice, 
thrushes,  vireos,  warblers,  waxwings,  whip-poor-wills, 
woodpeckers,  and  wrens,  and  all  other  perching  birds 
which  feed  entirely  or  chiefly  on  insects. 

Regulation  2:  Closed  season  at  night 

A  daily  closed  season  on  all  migratory  game  and  in- 
sectivorous birds  shall  extend  from  sunset  to  sunrise. 

Regulation  3:  Closed  season  on  insectivorous  birds 

A  closed  season  on  migratory  insectivorous  birds  shall 
continue  throughout  the  year,  except  that  the  closed 
season  on  reedbirds  or  ricebirds  in  New  Jersey,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Delaware,  Maryland,  the  District  of  Columbia, 


BIRD-PROTECTION  BY  GOVERNMENTS    199 

Virginia,  North  Carolina,  and  South  Carolina,  shall  com- 
mence November  1  and  end  August  31,  next  following, 
both  dates  inclusive :  Provided,  That  nothing  in  this  or 
any  other  of  these  regulations  shall  be  construed  to  pre- 
vent the  issue  of  permits  for  collecting  birds  for  scientific 
purposes  in  accordance  with  the  laws  and  regulations  in 
force  in  the  respective  States  and  Territories  and  the  Dis- 
strict  of  Columbia. 

Regulation  4'  Closed  seasons  on  certain  game  birds 

A  closed  season  shall  continue  until  September  1,  1918, 
on  the  following  migratory  game  birds:  Band-tailed 
pigeons,  little  brown,  sandhill,  and  whooping  cranes, 
wood  ducks,  swans,  curlew,  willet,  and  all  shore  birds  ex- 
cept the  black-breasted  and  golden  plover,  Wilson  snipe 
or  jacksnipe,  woodcock,  and  the  greater  and  lesser  yel- 
low-legs. 

A  closed  season  shall  also  continue  until  September  1, 
1918,  on  rails  in  California  and  Vermont;  and  on  wood- 
cock in  Illinois  and  Missouri. 

At  the  same  time  with  the  original  regulations 
there  was  issued  Circular  No.  93,  giving  explana- 
tions of  these  regulations,  from  which  the  following 
is  quoted :  — 

Laws  for  the  protection  of  migratory  birds  hitherto 
enacted  have  usually  provided  long  open  seasons  and 
have  been  framed  mainly  in  the  interests  of  the  hunter 
rather  than  of  the  game.  In  preparing  the  regulations  under 
the  Federal  law  for  the  protection  of  migratory  birds  an 
effort  has  been  made  to  reduce  the  open  seasons  to  rea- 
sonable limits,  to  provide  hunting  at  the  time  of  the  year 
when  game  birds  are  most  abundant  and  in  the  best  condi- 
tion, and  in  all  cases  to  give  the  benefit  of  the  doubt  to 


200  BIRD  FRIENDS 

the  bird.  Recognizing  the  fact  that  many  species  of  shore 
birds  and  some  of  the  water  fowl  have  diminished  to  a 
point  where  they  are  approaching  extinction,  protection 
has  been  extended  to  several  species  throughout  the  year 
and  to  others  at  least  three  fourths  of  the  year.  The  prep- 
aration of  the  regulations  was  entrusted  to  a  committee 
of  members  of  the  Biological  Survey  appointed  by  the 
Acting  Secretary  of  Agriculture  on  March  21,  1913.  The 
members  of  this  committee  were:  T.  S.  Palmer,  Assistant 
Chief,  chairman;  A.  K.  Fisher,  in  charge  of  Economic 
Investigations;  and  W.  W.  Cooke,  Migration  Expert. 
The  committee  at  once  took  up  the  work  of  examining 
the  data  on  file  in  the  Biological  Survey  relating  to 
the  distribution,  migration,  and  protection  of  migratory 
birds,  had  a  series  of  maps  prepared,  collected  much 
special  information,  and  after  numerous  conferences  rec- 
ommended the  regulations  contained  in  Circular  92. 
These  regulations  differ  from  the  ordinary  restrictions 
under  state  laws,  since  they  take  into  consideration  the 
entire  range  of  the  species  and  the  condition  of  the  birds 
at  all  times  of  the  year  and  not  merely  the  local  conditions 
when  a  certain  species  is  most  abundant  in  some  particu- 
lar State  or  region. 

Basis  of  the  Regulations 

In  carrying  out  the  statutory  requirements  of  "due 
regard  to  the  zones  of  temperature,  breeding  habits,  times 
and  lines  of  migratory  flight,"  the  following  are  some  of 
the  more  important  principles  on  which  the  regulations 
have  been  based:  — 

To  limit  the  list  of  migratory  game  birds  to  species 
properly  so  called  and  to  eliminate  species  too  small  to  be 
considered  legitimate  game  or  too  rare  to  be  longer  hunted 
for  sport  or  profit.  This  list  has  been  made  to  conform 
as  closely  as  possible  with  the  statutory  definitions  of 
game. 


BIRD-PROTECTION  BY  GOVERNMENTS    201 

To  prevent  spring  shooting. 

To  protect  migratory  birds  between  sunset  and  sunrise. 

To  provide  protected  flight  lines  along  at  least  two  of 
the  great  navigable  rivers. 

To  make  the  seasons  approximately  equal  in  length  in 
different  parts  of  the  country. 

To  limit  the  hunting  seasons  to  a  maximum  of  three  or 
three  and  one-half  months. 

To  regulate  these  seasons  according  to  latitude  and 
times  of  migration  and  to  adjust  them  so  that  there  may 
be  a  reasonable  opportunity  of  securing  thirty  days'  shoot- 
ing of  any  species  at  a  given  place. 

To  provide  separate  seasons  for  water  fowl,  rail,  shore 
birds,  and  woodcock.  The  woodcock  seasons  are  made  to 
conform  as  nearly  as  possible  with  the  seasons  for  upland 
game  under  state  laws,  so  that  there  may  be  no  opportu- 
nity in  close  seasons  to  hunt  quail  or  grouse  under  the 
guise  of  shooting  woodcock. 

To  curtail  hunting  at  the  end  instead  of  the  beginning 
of  the  open  season,  in  the  interest  of  both  birds  and  the 
sportsmen. 

To  utilize  all  the  protection  now  accorded  by  the  closed 
seasons  under  state  laws  and  extend  these  seasons  when 
necessary. 

Effect  of  the  Regulations 

The  probable  effect  of  these  regulations  may  be  briefly 
stated  as  follows :  — 

(1)  Uniformity  in  protection  of  migratory  game  and 
insectivorous  birds  in  the  several  States. 

(2)  Protection  of  birds  in  spring  while  en  route  to 
their  nesting  grounds  and  while  mating. 

(3)  Uniformity  in  protection  of  migratory  birds  at 
night. 

(4)  Establishment  of  protected  migration  routes  along 
two  great  rivers  in  the  central  United  States. 


202  BIRD  FRIENDS 

(5)  Complete  protection  for  five  years  for  the  smaller 
shore  birds  and  other  species  which  have  become  greatly 
reduced  in  numbers. 

(6)  Reduction  of  the  open  season  on  migratory  game 
birds,  but  in  most  cases  not  more  than  twenty-five  to  fifty 
per  cent. 

(7)  No  change  in  existing  conditions  before  October  1, 
1913. 

Three  months  were  allowed  for  criticism,  during 
which  public  hearings  were  given,  and  then  finally, 
with  a  few  minor  changes,  the  regulations  were 
approved  by  President  Wilson  and  became  effective 
October  1,  1913. 

Congress  in  the  session  of  1914  appropriated 
$50,000  for  the  enforcement  of  this  law.  Federal 
wardens  have  been  appointed  to  cooperate  with 
the  state  wardens  in  the  enforcement  of  this  law  and 
of  the  law  regulating  interstate  shipment  of  game. 

The  provisions  of  this  federal  law  may  be  briefly 
summarized  by  saying  that  four  kinds  of  protection 
are  granted  to  migratory  birds :  — 

1.  Permanent  protection,  granted  to  all  migra- 
tory insectivorous  birds. 

2.  Limited  protection,  for  five  years  to  certain 
game-birds  which  are  very  scarce,  including  sixty- 
two  species. 

3.  Seasonal   protection,   of   about   nine  months 
to  migratory  game-birds. 

4.  Nightly  protection,  given  to  all  birds  between 
sunset  and  sunrise. 


BIRD-PROTECTION  BY  GOVERNMENTS    203 

The  constitutionality  of  this  law  has  been  chal- 
lenged and  the  matter  has  been  brought  to  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States,  but  the  de- 
cision has  not  yet  been  given.  Careful  students  of 
the  law  believe  that  it  will  stand  the  test  of  con- 
stitutionality. 

Tariff  regulations.  At  the  first  session  of  Congress 
in  1913  bird-lovers  fought  and  won  another  great 
battle  for  the  birds.  Congress  in  its  revision  of  the 
tariff  adopted  the  following  schedule  prohibiting 
the  importation  of  feathers:  — 

Provided,  that  importation  of  aigrettes,  egret  plumes, 
or  so  called  osprey  plumes,  and  the  feathers,  quills,  heads, 
wings,  tails,  skins,  and  parts  of  skins  of  wild  birds,  either 
raw  or  manufactured,  and  not  for  scientific  or  educational 
purposes  is  hereby  prohibited,  but  this  provision  shall  not 
apply  to  the  feathers  of  domestic  fowls  of  any  kind. 

When  the  matter  was  under  consideration  by  the 
House  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means,  friends  of 
bird-protection  appeared  before  it  asking  that  the 
importation  of  feathers  be  prohibited.  This  was 
adopted  by  the  House  and  the  bill  was  sent  to  the 
Senate.  The  Senate  Finance  Committee  made  such 
radical  changes  as  to  make  the  provision  worthless 
for  the  purpose  originally  intended.  The  friends  of 
bird-protection  made  strenuous  efforts  to  have  the 
tariff  provision  inserted  as  it  came  from  the  House, 
and  the  Senators  were  deluged  with  letters  and 
telegrams  demanding  that  this  provision  be  retained 


204  BIRD  FRIENDS 

unchanged.  When  the  matter  finally  came  to  the 
Democratic  caucus,  it  rejected  the  report  of  the  Sen- 
ate Committee  and  adopted  the  House  provision 
prohibiting  the  importation  of  the  plumage  of  wild 
birds  except  for  scientific  and  educational  purposes. 
This  was  later  adopted  by  the  Senate. 

National  Bird  Reservations.  On  March  14, 1903, 
President  Roosevelt  issued  the  following  order:  — 

It  is  hereby  ordered  that  Pelican  Island  in  Indian  River, 
Florida,  is  reserved  and  set  apart  for  the  use  of  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  as  a  preserve  and  breeding- 
ground  for  native  birds. 

Thus  was  the  first  National  Bird  Refuge  set  aside 
and  a  government  policy  was  then  initiated  which 
has  since  been  expanded  into  a  system  of  many  bird 
refuges.  The  need  of  such  reservations  was  first 
brought  to  the  attention  of  President  Roosevelt  by 
the  National  Association  of  Audubon  Societies, 
some  of  whose  members  had  noticed  the  needless 
destruction  of  birds  on  these  islands. 

As  the  question  was  raised  as  to  whether  the 
President  had  power  to  set  aside  such  reservations, 
a  little  later  a  bill  was  enacted  by  Congress  giving 
the  President  authority  to  establish  reservations  of 
this  character  on  government  lands  not  fitted  for 
agriculture.  Most  of  these  are  situated  on  small, 
rocky  islands  or  on  tracts  of  marsh  land  of  no  value 
to  man.  These  reservations  vary  in  size  from  two 
acres  (Hog  Island,  Wisconsin,  the  home  of  a  colony 


BIRD-PROTECTION  BY  GOVERNMENTS     205 

of  gulls)  to  the  very  large  Hawaiian  Island  reserva- 
tion, which  extends  over  five  degrees  of  longitude 
and  includes  the  breeding-ground  of  over  a  million 
sea-birds. 

The  National  Association  of  Audubon  Societies 
has  agents  in  the  field  making  searches  for  areas 
suitable  for  such  reservations,  and  when  found  they 
are  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  President  of  the 
United  States.  Birds  are  given  protection  at  all  times 
on  these  reservations,  wardens  are  stationed  on  the 
most  important  ones,  and  the  National  Association 
of  Audubon  Societies  cooperates  with  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  in  protecting  the  birds.  The 
policy  thus  initiated  by  President  Roosevelt  has 
been  followed  by  Presidents  Taft  and  Wilson  tfll 
the  Government  has  sixty-nine  bird  reservations 
up  to  January  20,  1915. 

The  purpose  of  these  reservations  is  threefold: 
first,  to  protect  important  breeding-colonies  of 
water-birds;  second,  to  furnish  refuges  for  migra- 
tory species  on  their  northern  and  southern  flights; 
and  third,  to  furnish  refuges  for  migratory  species 
during  the  winter. 

These  bird  reservations  may  be  grouped  into  six 
districts :  — 

1.  The  Gulf  District,  including  ten  in  Florida, 
four  in  Louisiana,  and  one  in  Porto  Rico.  The  chief 
birds  protected  are  brown  pelicans,  gulls,  terns, 
herons  of  various  kinds,  and  ducks. 


206  BIRD  FRIENDS 

2.  The  Lake  District,  including  two  in  Michigan, 
two  in  North  Dakota,  and  one  in  Wisconsin.    The 
principal  birds  protected  here  are  breeding  colonies 
of  gulls,  ducks,  and  white  pelicans. 

3.  The  Mountain  District,  including  twelve  in 
the  Rocky  Mountain  States,  South  Dakota,  and 
Nebraska.    These  serve  as  a  refuge  for  water-fowl 
and  shore-birds  during  the  spring  and  fall  migra- 
tions. 

4.  The  Pacific  District,  including  eight  in  Wash- 
ington, four  in  Oregon,  and  three  in  California.  The 
reservations  on  the  coast  contain  great  rookeries  of 
sea-birds.  The  inland  reservations  contain  breeding 
colonies  of  gulls,  Caspian  terns,  grebes,  white  peli- 
cans, ducks,  and  geese. 

5.  The  Alaskan  District,  including  eight  reser- 
vations.   In  these  reservations  are  nesting-grounds 
of  sea-birds,  ducks,  and  geese. 

6.  The  Hawaiian  District,  including  one  reser- 
vation. Large  numbers  of  sea-birds  are  found  here. 

Besides  these  reservations  which  have  been 
created  especially  for  protecting  birds,  there  are  a 
number  of  other  reservations  which  were  set  aside 
for  other  purposes,  in  which  birds  receive  special 
protection.  These  include  (1)  ten  National  Parks; 
(2)  five  Military  Parks;  (3)  nine  national  game  pre- 
serves and  other  refuges  for  wild  life;  (4)  ten  reser- 
vations for  aquatic  species;  and  (5)  seven  national 
reservations  made  into  game  preserves  in  whole  or  in 


BIRD-PROTECTION  BY  GOVERNMENTS    207 

part  by  state  laws.  These,  together  with  the  bird 
reservations,  constitute  one  hundred  and  ten  res- 
ervations in  which  birds  receive  special  protection. 

The  following  are  the  ten  National  Parks  that  may 
be  considered  bird  refuges:  Yellowstone,  Wyoming; 
National  Zoological  Park  and  Rock  Creek  Park, 
in  the  District  of  Columbia;  Sequoia,  Yosemite, 
and  General  Grant,  California;  Mount  Rainier, 
Washington;  Crater  Lake,  Oregon;  Wind  Cave, 
South  Dakota;  Glacier,  Montana,  —  having  a 
total  area  of  4,320,000  acres. 

The  National  Military  Parks  were  created  to 
commemorate  some  notable  engagement  during 
the  Civil  War.  There  are  five  of  these,  situated  at 
Chickamauga  and  Chattanooga,  Antietam,  Shiloh, 
Gettysburg,  and  Vicksburg,  with  a  total  area  of 
eleven  thousand  acres.  These  refuges  are  important 
because  their  location  is  such  that,  in  connection 
with  some  other  reservations,  they  form  a  chain  of 
refuges  almost  in  line  with  the  migratory  flights  of 
the  birds. 

The  largest  national  reservation  which  has  be- 
come a  game  preserve  through  state  laws  is  the 
Superior  National  Forest,  Minnesota,  including 
1,420,000  acres. 

The  next  great  step  needed  in  the  cause  of  bird- 
protection  is  to  make  every  national  forest  a  na- 
tional game  preserve  in  which  no  hunting  for  sport 
shall  be  allowed.  Then  these  areas  will  produce 


208  BIRD  FRIENDS 

enough  birds  to  keep  the  surrounding  country  well 
supplied. 

State  reservations.  Some  of  the  States  have  also 
set  aside  game  preserves,  notably  Pennsylvania 
(with  five) ,  New  York,  Montana  (with  three) ,  Wy- 
oming (with  two),  Rhode  Island,  Louisiana,  Idaho, 
California,  Oregon  (with  six,  including  1,700,000 
acres).  In  Wisconsin  are  twenty-two  refuges  with 
an  acreage  of  thirty  thousand  acres,  including  five 
state  parks,  the  University  grounds  at  Madison, 
and  a  number  of  private  refuges.  The  preserves  in 
New  York  State  amount  to  about  a  million  acres. 

In  Iowa,  game  preserves  are  being  established  in 
every  county,  wherein  no  shooting  will  be  allowed 
for  five  years,  and  where  the  birds  will  be  provided 
with  food  and  shelter  during  severe  weather. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

BIRD   CLUBS 

Meriden  Bird  Club.  Other  agencies  which  are 
aiding  the  cause  of  bird-protection  are  bird  clubs 
which  have  been  organized  in  various  parts  of  the 
country.  The  best  known  of  these  is  the  Meriden 
Bird  Club,  in  Meriden,  New  Hampshire,  organized 
through  the  efforts  of  Mr.  Ernest  Harold  Baynes, 
who  has  been  instrumental  in  the  organization  of 
many  other  clubs.  Meriden  is  a  small  village  of 
about  three  hundred  inhabitants  and  is  the  seat 
of  Kimball  Union  Academy.  The  students  of  the 
Academy  and  the  people  of  the  village  were  first  in- 
terested in  birds  by  lectures  given  by  Mr.  Baynes, 
and  in  December,  1910,  the  club  was  organized.  The 
club  had  for  its  objects  "  the  increase  and  protection 
of  our  local  wild  birds,  the  stimulation  of  interest 
in  bird  life,  and  the  gradual  establishment  of  a 
model  bird  sanctuary."  The  total  number  of  mem- 
bers the  first  year  was  214,  and  356  the  second  year. 
There  are  many  associate  members  interested  in  the 
formation  of  the  club  who  are  scattered  over  about 
thirty  States.  During  the  winter  special  attention 
is  given  to  feeding  the  birds.  In  the  spring,  nesting- 
houses  are  put  up  by  the  members  of  the  club,  A 


210  BIRD  FRIENDS 

campaign  has  been  carried  on  against  the  English 
sparrows  till  the  town  is  practically  free  of  them. 
Most  interesting  results  have  attended  these  efforts 
to  befriend  the  birds.  Many  nesting-houses  are 
occupied,  and  in  the  winter  flocks  of  a  great  variety 
of  birds  are  constant  visitors  at  the  feeding-stations. 
Seven  species  of  birds  in  this  little  town  have  be- 
come so  tame  as  to  feed  from  the  hand. 

The  chief  matter  to  which  attention  was  given 
was  the  establishment  of  a  bird  sanctuary.  A  friend 
offered  to  give  one  thousand  dollars  toward  this,  and 
a  farm  of  thirty-two  acres  in  the  edge  of  the  village 
was  bought  and  named  the  "Helen  Woodruff  Smith 
Sanctuary,"  after  the  donor.  This  is  being  gradually 
developed  so  as  to  make  it  attractive  to  the  birds. 
Shrubs  have  been  planted,  nesting-boxes  put  up, 
and  feeding-stations  planned  for  the  winter.  At  the 
dedication  of  this  bird  sanctuary,  Percy  MacKaye's 
bird  masque,  "Sanctuary,"  was  first  presented. 

Other  activities  of  the  club  are  to  place  bird  charts 
in  local  schools,  to  start  a  library  of  bird  books,  to 
conduct  a  column  of  bird  notes  in  the  local  paper, 
to  offer  prizes  for  essays  and  photographs,  and  to 
organize  other  bird  clubs.  The  club  publishes  an 
annual  report  setting  forth  its  activities  during  the 
year.  The  influence  of  this  club  has  been  widely  felt, 
and  as  a  result  many  other  bird  clubs  have  been 
organized. 

Brush  Hill  Bird  Club.  The  Brush  Hill  Bird  Club 


BIRD  CLUBS 

of  Milton,  Massachusetts,  published  its  first  report 
in  1914.    The  preface  begins:  — 

The  Brush  Hill  Bird  Club  wishes  to  impress  on  all  who 
chance  to  see  this  Report  that  our  Club  is  not  composed  of 
learned  ornithologists,  in  fact,  most  of  us  know  compara- 
tively few  birds.  Our  aims  are  to  protect  the  birds  and  to 
attract  them  about  our  houses  and  grounds.  Our  watch- 
word is  "  Conservation." 

Following  are  some  of  the  activities  of  this  club 
which  were  carried  on  in  appreciation  of  their  op- 
portunity for  useful  service  to  their  community :  — 

1.  Bird-houses  were  put  up  by  the  members. 

2.  A  campaign  of  education  was  waged  through  the 
library  and  schools. 

3.  The  library  was   supplied  with   bird  books  and 
magazines. 

4.  Plans  were  made  to  attract  birds  to  the  public  park 
by  providing  feeding-stations,  nesting-houses,  and 
bird-baths. 

5.  Bird  lectures  were  given. 

6.  Articles  regarding  birds  were  supplied  to  the  local 
papers. 

7.  An  exhibition  was  held  in  the  public  library. 

The  chief  activity  for  the  first  year  was  the  prep- 
aration of  this  exhibition,  which  was  kept  in  the 
library  for  two  months.  As  this  is  very  suggestive 
of  what  might  be  done  elsewhere,  a  brief  outline  is 
given  of  the  chief  features  of  this  exhibit:  — 

1.  Nesting-boxes. 

£.  Devices  for  feeding  birds. 

A.  Feeding-stations. 

B.  Food-stick. 


212  BIRD  FRIENDS 

C.  A  bird's  Christmas-tree. 

D.  Suet  pudding. 

E.  Home-made  bird  pudding. 

F.  Bird  breakfast  foods.  (A  collection  of  grains  and 
cereals  to  show  how  man  can  feed  the  birds.) 

G.  Nature's  method  of  feeding  the  birds.     (A 
collection  of  branches  of  trees  and  shrubs 
bearing  berries  and  seeds.) 

3.  English  sparrow  trap. 

4.  Bird  books  and  magazines. 

5.  Bird  portraits  and  colored  outlines  made  by  children. 

6.  Bird  games. 

7.  Text  of  federal  and  state  laws. 

8.  Cloth  signs  for  posting. 

The  constitution  of  the  Brush  Hill  Bird  Club  is 
given  as  being  suggestive  for  use  in  the  organization 
of  other  bird  clubs. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  BRUSH  HILL  BIRD 
CLUB 

ARTICLE  I  —  NAME 
This  Club  shall  be  known  as  the  Brush  Hill  Bird  Club. 

ARTICLE  II  —  PURPOSE 

The  purpose  of  this  Club  shall  be  to  encourage  protec- 
tion of  and  interest  in  bird  life  in  our  community. 

ARTICLE  III  —  MEMBERSHIP 

SECTION  1 .  The  membership  in  this  Club  shall  consist  of 
Active  Membership,  Active  Family  Membership,  Associate 
Membership,  Life  Membership,  Patrons  and  Benefactors. 

SECTION  2.  Any  resident  of  the  Brush  Hill-Blue  Hill 
district  of  Milton  may  become  an  active  member  on 
payment  of  the  prescribed  dues. 


BIRD  CLUBS  213 

SECTION  3.  Any  family  residing  in  the  Brush  Hill- 
Blue  Hill  district  of  Milton  may  obtain  a  Family  Mem- 
bership on  payment  of  the  prescribed  dues. 

SECTION  4.  Any  non-resident  in  sympathy  with  the 
purpose  of  this  Club  may  become  an  Associate  Member 
on  payment  of  the  prescribed  dues. 

SECTION  5.  Any  person  may  become  a  Life  Member 
on  payment  of  the  prescribed  fee. 

SECTION  6.  Any  person  may  become  a  Patron  on  pay- 
ment of  the  prescribed  fee. 

SECTION  7.  Any  person  may  become  a  Benefactor  on 
payment  of  the  prescribed  fee. 

SECTION  8.  The  dues  for  Active  Members  shall  be 
$1,  payable  annually. 

SECTION  9.  The  dues  for  Active  Family  Membership 
shall  be  $5,  payable  annually. 

SECTION  10.  The  dues  for  Associate  Membership 
shall  be  $1,  payable  annually. 

SECTION  11.  The  fee  for  Life  Membership  shall  be  $25. 

SECTION  12.  The  fee  for  a  Patron  shall  be  $100. 

SECTION  13.  The  fee  for  a  Benefactor  shall  be  $1000. 

SECTION  14.  The  voting  power  shall  be  limited  to  ac- 
tive members. 

ARTICLE  IV  —  MEETINGS  OF  THE  CLUB 

Meetings  shall  be  held  at  the  discretion  of  the  Execu- 
tive Committee.  The  first  meeting  after  September  1 
shall  be  the  business  meeting,  at  which  the  election  of 
officers  for  the  ensuing  year  shall  be  held. 

ARTICLE  V  —  GOVERNMENT 

The  officers  of  the  Club  shall  consist  of  a  President, 
Vice-President,  Secretary,  Treasurer,  and  General  Mana- 
ger. The  officers  .of  the  Club  shall  constitute  the  Execu- 
tive Committee,  which  Committee  shall  pass  upon  all 
business  that  is  to  be  brought  before  the  Club  for  action. 


214  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Burroughs  Nature  Club.  The  Burroughs  Nature 
Club  was  organized  in  1910  for  the  purpose  of  study- 
ing Mr.  Burroughs's  writings,  and  local  clubs  have 
been  formed  in  many  towns.  This  club  has  taken 
a  special  interest  in  the  protection  of  bird  life. 

Examples  of  the  development  of  the  Burroughs 
Club  idea  appear  in  the  bird  sanctuaries  established 
by  the  Organization.  Among  the  most  notable  is  the 
"Wren's  Nest,"  the  old  home  of  Joel  Chandler 
Harris  at  Atlanta,  Georgia,  dedicated  by  Mr.  Bur- 
roughs himself  by  placing  a  wren's  nesting-box  on 
a  branch  near  the  porch  where  so  many  of  the  Uncle 
Remus  stories  were  written. 

The  Cottage  Grove  and  Fernwood  Sanctuary  was 
established  by  the  Rochester  Burroughs  Club  on 
the  shore  of  Lake  Ontario. 

Near  Ellenville,  Ulster  County,  New  York,  the 
Mount  Meenahga  estate  of  seven  hundred  acres, 
in  the  midst  of  a  wild  section  of  about  four  thousand 
acres,  has  become  one  of  their  regular  sanctuaries, 
where  there  have  been  erected  over  one  hundred 
nesting-boxes  and  devices  for  winter  feeding. 

Each  year,  Burroughs's  birthday,  April  3,  is  ob- 
served by  the  dedication  of  new  sanctuaries,  usually 
consisting  of  school  grounds  or  public  parks.  The 
year  1915  saw  this  done  in  Utica,  New  York,  and 
in  Toledo,  Ohio,  where  the  bird-boxes  were  made 
by  the  children  and  placed  in  the  parks,  with  the 
cooperation  of  the  city  government. 


JOHN  BURROUGHS  AT  THE  DEDICATION  OF  "WREN'S  NEST" 
IN  ATLANTA,  GA.,  BY  THE  BURROUGHS  NATURE  CLUB 


FIELD    DAY    IN    RENW1CK    WOODS,    ITHACA,   N.Y. 
Mr.  L.  A.  Fuertes  addressing  the  Cayuga  Bird  Club 


BIRD  CLUBS 

The  Governor  of  Utah  proclaimed  Burroughs's 
birthday  as  a  State  Bird  Day,  with  the  recommenda- 
tion that  the  grounds  surrounding  all  schoolhouses 
and  all  public  parks  and  cemeteries  be  dedicated 
to  the  birds.  This  recommendation  is  rapidly  being 
carried  out.  The  schools  have  taken  it  up  gener- 
ally, and  in  1915  the  campus  of  the  University  of 
Utah  (a  tract  of  ground  one  hundred  and  fifteen 
acres  in  extent)  was  dedicated  as  a  bird  sanctuary. 

Their  latest  effort  is  to  start  a  bird  sanctuary  in  a 
residential  park  bordering  on  Prospect  Park,  Brook- 
lyn. 

Members  are  urged  to  establish  bird  refuges  in 
the  summer  resorts  where  they  spend  their  vaca- 
tions. 

Liberty  Bell  Bird  Club.  The  Liberty  Bell  Bird 
Club  was  organized  in  1913  by  the  "Farm  Journal," 
Philadelphia.  Its  object  is  to  protect  song  and  in- 
sectivorous birds.  Special  effort  is  made  to  interest 
people  in  the  country.  On  July  1, 1916,  its  member- 
ship was  706,000.  Those  who  desire  to  become  mem- 
bers sign  the  following  pledge  and  receive  free  the 
club  button  and  a  little  pamphlet  entitled,  "Guide 
of  the  Liberty  Bell  Bird  Club":  - 

Pledge.  I  desire  to  become  a  member  of  the  Liberty 
Bell  Bird  Club,  and  promise  to  study  and  protect  all  song 
and  insectivorous  birds  and  to  do  what  I  can  for  the  Club. 

The  club  has  installed  bird  sanctuaries  in  three 
of  the  largest  cemeteries  in  the  country. 


216  BIRD  FRIENDS 

The  "Guide"  for  1916  reports  that  they  have 
fought  the  battle  for  the  birds  before  3577  county 
superintendents  and  166,471  teachers,  and  have  in- 
troduced bird-study  into  15,615  schools  up  to  July  1, 
1915. 

Bird  club  activities.  The  following  summary 
shows  the  activities  that  have  been  carried  on  by 
the  various  bird  clubs :  — 

1.  Meetings  of  club  members. 

A.  Field  trips  to  study  birds. 

B.  Evening  meetings  for  the  discussion  of  bird 

topics. 

2.  Individual  work  of  club  members. 

A.  Provide  nesting-houses. 

B.  Feed  winter  birds. 

C.  Provide  fountains. 

3.  Work  with  school-children. 

A.  Bird  talks  to  children. 

B.  Furnish  pictures,  bird  leaflets,  and  bird  books. 

C.  Form  children's  bird  clubs. 

D.  Offer  prizes  for  best  nesting-houses  and  essays. 

E.  Present  feeding  devices  to  school. 

4.  Means  of  educating  the  public  and  arousing  interest. 

A.  Bird  items  in  local  newspapers. 

B.  Issuing  circulars  for  general  distribution. 

C.  Lectures  given,  open  to  the  public. 

D.  Public  library  supplied  with  bird  books  and 

magazines. 

E.  Exhibitions  held  in  some  public  place. 

5.  Establish  feeding-stations  for  winter  birds. 

6.  Establish  bird  sanctuary,  or  make  sanctuary  out  of 
parks. 

7.  Manufacture  and  sale  of  devices^or  attracting  birds. 


BIRD  CLUBS  217 

8.  Local  bird  warden  appointed. 

9.  Protection  of  birds  from  their  enemies. 

A.  Destruction  of  English  sparrow. 

B.  Control  of  the  cat. 

The  first  annual  report  of  the  Brush  Hill  Bird 
Club  gives  a  list  of  thirty-seven  bird  clubs,  located 
chiefly  in  New  England.  The  annual  report  of  the 
National  Association  of  Audubon  Societies  gives  a 
list  of  twenty  bird  clubs  affiliated  with  the  National 
Association.  Mr.  Ernest  Harold  Baynes,  who  has 
been  the  prime  factor  in  this  movement,  has  organ- 
ized about  sixty  bird  clubs;  so  that  there  are  prob- 
ably about  one  hundred  bird  clubs  to  be  found  in 
the  United  States. 

The  organization  of  a  bird  club  enables  those 
interested  in  birds  to  work  more  effectively  than 
would  be  possible  individually,  and  many  people  who 
are  not  acquainted  with  birds  are  interested  in  the 
opportunity  for  doing  public  service  through  the 
conservation  of  valuable  birds.  Interest  may  be 
aroused  by  having  some  one  deliver  a  lecture  on 
birds.  A  club  may  be  organized  at  the  close  of  such 
a  lecture.  Details  regarding  the  methods  to  be  used 
are  given  in  Mr.  Ernest  Harold  Baynes's  "Wild 
Bird  Guests." 

One  interesting  result  of  these  bird  clubs  has  been 
the  effect  upon  the  communities  in  which  they  have 
been  organized.  Frequently  a  feeling  of  indifference 
to  bird  life  has  been  changed  to  one  of  enthusiasm 


218  BIRD  FRIENDS 

for  bird-protection.  In  some  cases  the  club  has  served 
as  a  center  of  general  interest  for  the  whole  town  and 
has  been  a  means  of  arousing  a  community  spirit. 

Other  organizations  which  have  been  active  in  the 
protection  of  birds  and  wild  life  in  general  are  the 
New  York  Zoological  Society,  the  Boone  and  Crock- 
ett Club,  the  Camp-fire  Club  of  America,  the  Ameri- 
can Game  Protective  and  Propagation  Association, 
the  Wild  Life  Protective  Association,  and  the  State 
Game  Protective  Associations. 

Private  game  preserves.  There  are  in  the  United 
States  about  five  hundred  private  game  preserves. 
These  may  be  controlled  by  hunting-clubs  or  pri- 
vately by  individuals.  They  are  kept  for  the  sake 
of  raising  game,  either  naturally  or  by  artificial 
methods,  so  as  to  furnish  shooting  for  the  owners. 
Some  of  them  are  duck  preserves  and  marshes,  and 
some  are  upland  preserves  for  big  game  or  game- 
birds.  They  may  vary  in  size  from  1000  acres  or 
less  up  to  125,000  acres.  In  New  York  State  the 
private  game  preserves  comprise  an  area  of  800,000 
acres.  In  these  preserves  native  game  is  protected 
and  is  sure  to  increase,  and  some  of  the  birds  spread 
out  and  help  to  maintain  the  game-supply  in  the 
surrounding  country.  So  while  there  have  been 
some  objections  raised  against  these  private  game 
preserves,  on  the  whole  they  tend  toward  the  con- 
servation of  bird  life. 

In  Dearborn,  Michigan,  Mr.  Henry  Ford  has  a 


BIRD  CLUBS  219 

farm  of  twenty-eight  hundred  acres  which  has  been 
given  to  bird  attraction  and  protection.  Mr.  Jeffer- 
son Butler,  one  of  Michigan's  ornithologists,  was 
employed  before  his  death  to  superintend  the  devel- 
opment of  the  farm.  The  entire  farm  is  managed 
with  the  sole  thought  of  attracting  birds.  Bird-ene- 
mies are  disposed  of.  Shrubs  and  vines  are  planted 
the  fruits  of  which  are  eaten  by  birds.  Thickets  are 
allowed  to  grow  to  furnish  nesting-sites  for  birds.  A 
river  has  been  dammed  to  make  a  marsh  of  thirty 
acres  for  the  water-birds.  Varieties  of  nesting-boxes 
have  been  put  up  by  the  hundreds.  Automatic  feed- 
ing-devices are  kept  in  many  places  and  these  are 
well  supplied  with  food  during  the  winter. 

The  results  are  already  evident  in  the  increased 
number  of  birds.  One  writer  estimates  that  there 
are  ten  times  as  many  birds  to  the  acre  on  this  farm 
as  anywhere  else  in  the  State.  In  a  glen  by  the  river, 
about  two  hundred  feet  long  by  thirty  feet  wide, 
twenty -three  pairs  of  birds,  including  fifteen  species, 
were  found  nesting  in  one  season. 

Mention  may  be  made  also  of  Messrs.  Edward  A. 
Mcllhenny  and  Charles  W.  Ward,  who  have  done 
much  for  the  protection  of  birds  in  the  State  of 
Louisiana  through  the  establishment  of  bird  pre- 
serves. They  at  first  established  a  private  preserve 
of  about  fifty  thousand  acres  on  the  coast  of  Louisi- 
ana, in  the  heart  of  the  greatest  winter  home  of 
ducks  on  the  continent  of  North  America.  Game 


220  BIRD  FRIENDS 

wardens  were  hired  to  protect  this  and  to  prevent 
shooting.  Later  they  gave  thirteen  thousand  acres 
of  this  to  the  State  of  Louisiana  as  a  perpetual  bird 
refuge.  They  were  also  instrumental  in  having  the 
Marsh  Island  Reserve  of  seventy-five  thousand  acres 
bought  by  Mrs.  Russell  Sage,  who  contributed 
$150,000  for  this  purpose.  This  has  now  been  of- 
fered to  the  Government  to  be  kept  as  a  bird  refuge. 
Later  the  Carnegie  Foundation  acquired  a  large 
tract  adjoining  this  of  about  eighty-five  thousand 
acres,  at  a  cost  of  $225,000.  Together  these  extend 
along  the  coast  for  seventy-five  miles  and  comprise 
about  five  hundred  square  miles.  A  fourth  tract  is 
gradually  being  acquired. 

In  New  York,  Mr.  E.  H.  Litchfield  has  a  fenced 
preserve  in  the  Adirondacks  of  about  ten  thousand 
acres.  Another  fenced  preserve  of  about  three  thou- 
sand acres  in  New  York  State  is  owned  by  Mr.  C.  P. 
Dieterich. 

In  New  Jersey,  Mr.  Charles  C.  Worthington  has 
a  large  bird  refuge  of  eighty  thousand  acres  which 
he  has  offered  to  the  State  of  New  Jersey  to  be 
held  as  a  permanent  game  refuge. 

Recently  the  Minnetonka  Bird  Sanctuary  has 
been  established  along  Lake  Minnetonka,  near 
Minneapolis,  Minnesota,  as  a  result  of  a  petition  of 
hundreds  of  residents  of  that  section.  This  includes 
a  tract  of  about  fifty-five  thousand  acres.  The 
State  Game  Commission  has  prohibited  shooting 


BIRD  CLUBS 

and  even  the  carrying  of  firearms  either  on  the 
lake  or  on  a  surrounding  zone  of  land  one  mile  in 
width. 

A  number  of  years  ago  a  tract  of  two  acres,  situ- 
ated near  the  grounds  of  the  University  of  Cincin- 
nati, was  purchased  by  a  woman  interested  in  birds, 
at  a  cost  of  $250,000.  This  is  to  be  made  a  bird  park 
and  has  been  given  to  the  city.  Its  development  is 
under  the  charge  of  the  Department  of  Biology  of 
the  University  of  Cincinnati. 

City  and  state  ornithologists.  The  city  of  Pitts- 
burgh, Pennsylvania,  has  appointed  a  city  ornithol- 
ogist whose  duty  it  is  to  protect  birds  in  the  city 
from  molestation,  especially  when  nesting;  to  erect 
bird-houses;  to  provide  food  for  wild  birds;  and  to 
report  annually  upon  the  increase  or  decrease  of  the 
birds.  Under  a  recent  law  passed  in  Massachusetts, 
the  towns  of  Dover,  Brookline,  and  Milton  have 
appointed  bird  wardens.  Within  recent  years  state 
ornithologists  have  been  appointed  in  the  following 
States :  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Vermont,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  Delaware. 

Summary  of  what  has  been  accomplished  in  pro- 
tecting the  birds.  During  the  past  quarter  of  a  cen- 
tury remarkable  strides  have  been  made  in  the  cause 
of  bird-protection.  Thirty  years  ago  our  common 
song-birds  were  used  for  millinery  purposes.  To-day 
many  States  have  laws  forbidding  the  use  of  feathers 
of  wild  birds  for  millinery  purposes  and  the  National 


222  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Government  has  prohibited  the  importation  of  the 
feathers  of  any  wild  birds. 

Formerly  game-birds  were  shot  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year,  were  sold  in  the  market  in  large  numbers, 
and  no  limit  was  set  on  the  number  that  could  be 
shot;  now  shooting  is  allowed  only  in  the  fall,  the 
sale  of  game  is  prohibited,  and  the  number  of  game 
that  may  be  killed  is  limited,  though  there  is  still 
opportunity  for  improvement  along  this  line. 

Formerly  birds  were  almost  entirely  unprotected 
by  law,  and  when  laws  were  passed,  there  was  often 
such  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  laws  of  the  different 
States  that  the  protection  was  very  inadequate. 
To-day  practically  all  the  States  give  full  protection 
to  valuable  insectivorous  birds.  Formerly  the  Na- 
tional Government  gave  no  attention  to  the  protec- 
tion of  birds;  now  it  protects  all  the  migratory  game 
and  insectivorous  birds  and  has  given  a  closed  season 
of  five  years  to  many  game-birds. 

Formerly  there  was  little  general  interest  in  birds 
and  nothing  was  taught  about  them  to  children  in 
schools.  To-day  there  is  a  very  wide-spread  gen- 
eral interest  in  bird  life,  and  many  children  in  our 
schools  are  being  taught  the  value  of  bird  life  and 
its  protection. 

Formerly  there  were  few  places  where  birds  were 
safe  from  persecution;  now  there  are  many  refuges, 
national,  state,  and  private,  where  birds  are  pro- 
tected at  all  times. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

NESTING-BOXES 

THE  kind  of  protection  discussed  in  the  previous 
chapters  has  been  chiefly  of  a  negative  character, 
in  which  the  purpose  is  to  stop  the  unnecessary 
killing  of  birds  and  to  allow  them  to  increase  by 
natural  methods.  We  come  now  to  discuss  a  positive 
kind  of  protection,  which  includes  the  negative, 
but  goes  a  step  farther  and  seeks  to  increase  the 
number  of  birds  by  providing  the  conditions  essen- 
tial to  bird  life.  The  things  which  man  can  furnish 
to  meet  these  conditions  are  nesting-sites,  food,  and 
water. 

Reasons  for  positive  protection.  The  reasons  why 
one  might  desire  to  carry  on  this  positive  kind  of 
protection  are  fourfold:  first,  on  account  of  the 
pleasure  that  one  may  derive  from  watching  the  birds 
thus  brought  around  the  home;  second,  on  account 
of  the  help  which  the  birds  will  render  in  the  de- 
struction of  injurious  insects;  third,  on  account  of 
the  influence  that  the  study  of  birds  may  have  upon 
the  children  in  the  home  and  the  school;  and  fourth, 
on  account  of  the  assistance  one  is  giving  to  the  con- 
servation of  valuable  birds. 
k  The  pleasures  of  bird-study  are  increased  many 


BIRD  FRIENDS 

times  when  one  can  find  the  birds  right  around  one's 
home  and  know  that  he  has  been  instrumental  in 
bringing  them  there. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  gardener,  fruit-grower, 
and  farmer,  increasing  the  birds  is  a  business  prop- 
osition, the  same  as  when  one  invests  in  a  spraying- 
outfit  for  controlling  the  insects  that  prey  upon  the 
fruits  and  vegetables;  only  in  this  case  the  expense 
is  negligible,  and  after  the  birds  are  once  brought 
to  the  farm  and  garden,  their  work  in  destroying  in- 
sects continues  from  sunrise  to  sunset  without  any 
effort  on  the  part  of  the  farmer.  There  are  on  rec- 
ord many  instances  showing  the  resulting  benefits 
when  systematic  efforts  are  made  to  encourage  the 
presence  of  birds.  Mr.  E.  H.  Forbush  cites  an  in- 
stance of  four  young  apple  trees  which  were  in- 
fested with  plant-lice.  Two  of  the  trees,  which  were 
located  near  houses  containing  families  of  bluebirds 
and  chickadees,  were  almost  entirely  cleared  of  the 
lice  by  these  birds,  while  the  other  two,  which  were 
some  distance  away,  finally  died  from  the  effect 
of  the  pests. 

Evidence  of  the  value  of  attracting  birds  comes 
also  from  Germany,  where  systematic  experiments 
have  been  carried  on.  In  the  spring  of  1905  the 
larvae  of  a  moth  attacked  a  large  wood  near  Eisen- 
bach,  and  stripped  it  almost  entirely  of  its  foliage; 
while  in  the  neighboring  wood  at  Seebach,  in  which 
nesting-houses  had  been  systematically  placed,  the 


NESTING-BOXES  225 

trees  were  uninjured.  A  similar  effect  was  noticed  in 
the  orchards.  At  Seebach  the  trees  always  escaped 
the  devastation  of  insects,  while  the  neighboring 
orchards  frequently  suffered  from  their  attacks. 

To  the  parent  and  teacher,  attracting  birds  has 
a  special  interest  on  account  of  the  relation  of  this 
work  to  child  life.  Children  are  naturally  interested 
in  bird  life  and  especially  enjoy  making  bird-houses. 
This  kind  of  work  has  a  beneficial  effect  on  children, 
because  it  teaches  a  sort  of  care,  a  sense  of  responsi- 
bility for  those  birds  which  their  efforts  have  brought 
around  the  house. 

And,  lastly,  to  every  citizen  interested  in  furthering 
the  conservation  of  the  resources  of  the  country  this 
work  appeals.  It  does  not  follow  that  one  need  to 
be  especially  familiar  with  the  birds  in  order  to  be 
interested  in  this  line  of  work,  if  one  but  appreciates 
the  value  of  bird  life  and  the  need  of  conserving  it. 
Some  of  the  bird  clubs  recently  organized  have  been 
formed  by  people  who  know  very  few  birds,  but  who 
are  interested  in  doing  something  for  the  welfare  of 
the  community  in  which  they  live. 

Need  of  nesting-boxes.  With  the  rapid  increase 
of  population  in  our  cities  and  towns  and  their  cor- 
responding growth  countryward,  orchards,  decaying 
trees,  shrubbery,  and  other  nesting-sites  are  steadily 
disappearing.  As  a  result,  in  the  suburbs  of  cities 
birds  that  nest  in  cavities  find  it  difficult  to  obtain 
suitable  nesting-sites,  and  as  the  old  sites  are  cut 


226  BIRD  FRIENDS 

down  the  birds  are  driven  farther  out  in  the  country 
to  nest. 

Birds  using  boxes.  Whether  any  particular  kind 
of  bird  will  use  a  nesting-box  depends  primarily  on 
its  natural  nesting-site.  If  it  nests  in  a  hollow  tree 
or  limb,  there  is  a  possibility  that  it  may  occupy 
these  artificial  nesting-boxes.  There  are  other  birds 
which  usually  build  their  nests  in  the  open  that  may 
use  open  nesting-boxes.  The  birds  which  have  been 
actually  known  to  nest  in  bird-houses,  as  far  as  the 
author  has  been  able  to  secure  any  records,  are  the 
following :  — 

Birds  using  nesting-houses 
(Those  marked  with  a  *  are  quite  common  occupants) 

*Bluebirds:  — 

Eastern  (Sialia  sialis  sialis). 

Western  (Sialia  mexicana  oceidentalis) . 

Mountain  (Sialia  currucoides) . 
Chickadees :  — 

Black-capped  (Penthestes  atricapillus  atricapillus). 

Oregon  (Penthestes  atricapillus  oceidentalis). 

Carolina  (Penthestes  carolinensis  carolinensis) . 
Duck,  wood  (Aix  sponsa). 
Finch,  house  (Carpodacus  mexicanus  frontalis) . 
*Flicker  (Colaptes  auratus  luteus). 
Flycatcher,  crested  (Myiarchus  crinitus). 
Hawk,  sparrow  (Falco  sparverius  sparverius). 
*Martin,  purple  (Progne  subis  subis). 
Nuthatch,  red-breasted  (Sitta  canadensis). 
Nuthatch,  white-breasted  (Sitta  carolinensis  carolinensis) . 
Owl,  screech  (Otus  asio  asio). 


NESTING-BOXES  227 

*Sparrow,  English  (Passer  domesticus). 
Starling  (Sturnus  mdgaris). 
*Swallows :  — 

Tree  (Iridoprocne  bicolor). 

Violet-green  (Tachycineta  thalassina  lepida). 
Titmouse,  tufted  (Baeolophus  bicolor). 
Warbler,  prothonotary  (Protonotaria  citrea). 
Woodpeckers :  — 

Downy  (Dryobates  pubescens  medianus). 

Hairy  (Dryobates  villosus  villosus). 

Red-headed  (Melanerpes  erythrocephalus) . 
*  Wrens :  — 

House  (Troglodytes  aedon  aedon). 

Parkman's  (Troglodytes  aedon  parkmani). 

Bewick's  (Thryomanes  bewicki). 

Texas  (Thryomanes  bewicki  cry  plus). 

Vigors's  (Thryomanes  bewicki  spilurus). 

The  following  have  been  reported  as  using  the 
nesting-boxes  of  the  open  type;  cardinal,  catbird, 
purple  finch,  grackle,  mockingbird,  orchard  oriole, 
phoebe,  robin,  song  sparrow,  and  brown  thrasher. 

Types  of  houses.  The  great  variety  of  houses  now 
being  made  may  conveniently  be  classified  into  three 
groups,  based  on  the  attempt  to  imitate  the  natural 
nesting-sites  of  birds.  In  the  first  group  are  those 
houses  made  in  imitation  of  a  woodpecker's  nesting- 
site,  both  inside  and  outside;  in  the  second  group 
are  those  which  imitate  the  natural  nesting-sites  on 
the  outside  only;  and  in  the  third  group  are  those 
which  make  no  attempt  to  imitate  the  natural  nest- 
ing-sites either  inside  or  outside. 

Imitation  both  outside  and  inside.    The  best- 


BIRD  FRIENDS 

known  houses  of  the  first  group  are  those  devised  by 
Baron  von  Berlepsch  in  Germany.  He  has  made  a 
special  study  of  woodpeckers'  nests,  collecting  hun- 
dreds of  them,  and  he  finds  that  they  all  agree  in  the 
following  features:  the  opening  is  always  circular 
and  of  unvarying  size  for  each  species;  the  lower 
portion  of  the  nesting-cavity  is  enlarged  in  a  gourd 
shape,  and  ends  in  a  pointed  trough  at  the  bottom; 
the  inner  walls  are  roughened  somewhat  to  allow  the 
birds  to  cling  to  them  more  easily ;  and  in  the  extreme 
point  of  the  nest  are  a  few  fine  shavings.  Baron  von 
Berlepsch  has  constructed  a  nesting-house  embody- 
ing all  these  features.  The  results  following  the  use 
of  this  house  are  very  remarkable.  Of  five  thousand 
boxes  hung  up  by  Baron  von  Berlepsch  in  his  own 
woods,  and  of  about  ten  thousand  hung  up  in  other 
localities  by  state  authorities,  ninety  per  cent  or  over 
were  occupied.  And  this  was  true  in  some  localities 
where  unsuccessful  experiments  have  been  tried  in 
previous  years  with  other  kinds  of  nesting-boxes. 
These  houses  are  being  made  and  sold  in  large  quan- 
tities by  a  German  manufacturer,  and  in  one  case 
are  being  made  and  used  on  a  large  scale  by  German 
state  authorities.  They  are  now  being  made  by  at 
least  two  firms  in  this  country.  This  type  may  be 
made  by  splitting  a  limb  in  two  and  hollowing  out 
the  inside  of  each  half  in  the  proper  shape  and  then 
fastening  the  two  parts  together  by  means  of  screws 
or  nails. 


LONGITUDINAL    SECTIONS    OF   WOODPECKER'S    HOLE    AND 
OF  VON    BERLEPSCH   NESTING-BOX 


NATURAL    NESTING-SITE   OF   A   FLICKER   IN    AN    OLD 
APPLE  TREE 


NESTING-BOXES  229 

Imitation  on  outside  only.  In  this  type  the  houses 
are  made  of  sections  of  small  trees  or  of  pieces  of  wood 
with  the  bark  on,  but  there  is  no  attempt  to  make  the 
inside  conform  to  the  shape  of  a  woodpecker's  nest. 
It  may  be  cylindrical,  cubical,  or  of  irregular  shape. 
This  type  includes  the  following  kinds  of  houses; 
bark  houses,  boxes  made  of  slabs  with  the  bark  on, 
hollow  limbs  and  sections  of  limbs,  or  small  trees 
with  a  hole  excavated  by  boring  lengthwise  with 
a  large  auger. 

Bark  houses.  Very  attractive  houses  can  be  made 
entirely  of  bark.  Limbs  of  trees,  or  small  trees  of  the 
desired  size,  should  be  cut  into  sections  of  ten  or 
twelve  inches  in  length,  about  the  latter  part  of 
June.  The  bark  can  be  easily  removed  and  with  the 
addition  of  a  roof  and  floor  may  easily  be  made  into 
a  nesting-box.  Very  good  imitations  of  tree-trunks 
may  be  secured  by  constructing  boxes  out  of  slabs 
with  the  bark  on. 

Sections  of  hollow  trees  or  limbs  make  some  of 
the  very  best  bird-houses.  Sometimes  pieces  may 
be  found  with  the  center  already  decayed,  in  which 
case  it  is  only  necessary  to  saw  off  a  section  of  the 
desired  length,  fasten  on  a  floor  and  a  roof,  and 
make  the  entrance  hole.  It  is  desirable  that  the  roof 
be  put  on  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  readily  removed. 
To  hollow  out  a  solid  limb,  saw  it  in  halves  from 
one  end  to  about  three  inches  from  the  other,  where 
a  cross-cut  is  made  at  right  angles.  The  two  pieces 


230  BIRD  FRIENDS 

may  be  gouged  out  to  the  desired  size  and  wired  or 
screwed  together,  so  that  they  can  be  easily  taken 
apart  if  desired;  or  if  one  has  a  large  auger,  a  hole 
may  be  bored. 

No  attempt  at  imitation.  The  third  type  of  house, 
in  which  no  attempt  is  made  to  imitate  the  natural 
nesting-site,  may  be  classified,  according  to  the  ma- 
terial of  which  they  are  made,  as  follows :  wood,  tin, 
pottery,  cement,  roofing-paper,  and  gourds.  Of  these 
wood  is  the  most  easily  obtained  and  the  most  easily 
worked.  A  satisfactory  box  can  be  made  out  of  or- 
dinary boards,  the  older  the  better,  as  the  birds 
are  apt  to  be  frightened  away  by  new  boards;  but 
if  new  boards  are  used,  they  should  be  smeared 
with  moist  sand  and  exposed  to  the  weather  as  long 
as  possible  before  the  birds  are  expected  to  use  the 
house,  or  they  may  be  stained  or  painted  green  or 
brown. 

Tin  houses.  Quite  a  variety  of  houses  may  be 
made  from  various  kinds  of  tin  receptacles,  such 
as  tomato-cans,  varnish-cans,  coffee-cans,  etc.,  by 
fitting  in  at  one  end  a  circular  piece  of  wood  con- 
taining the  entrance  hole.  The  author  has  been 
very  successful  in  attracting  house  wrens  by  using 
old  tomato-cans.  An  empty  can  was  placed  upon  a 
hot  stove,  with  the  cut  end  down,  till  the  solder 
was  melted,  and  then  the  rest  of  the  cover  was 
knocked  off  with  a  poker.  A  circular  piece  of  wood 
from  a  half -inch  board  was  cut  out  so  as  to  fit  into 


NESTING-BOXES  231 

the  can.  A  one-inch  hole  was  made  in  the  board 
a  little  above  the  center,  and  then  the  board  was 
fastened  in  place  by  driving  tacks  through  the  tin. 
Nails  were  driven  obliquely  through  the  rear  of 
the  can  into  a  strip  of  wood,  by  means  of  which  the 
house  was  fastened  in  the  desired  position;  or  the 
can  may  be  suspended  by  means  of  wire  placed 
around  it.  In  one  can  of  this  sort,  made  by  the  au- 
thor, there  were  successfully  reared,  in  four  succes- 
sive seasons,  five  broods  of  house  wrens,  making  a 
total  of  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  young  birds. 

Pottery  houses.  The  author  has  seen  two  styles 
of  houses  made  of  pottery  or  earthenware  that  are 
now  on  the  market.  This  type  of  house  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  being  very  durable  as  it  is  not  affected 
by  the  weather. 

Cement  boxes.  One  manufacturer  makes  cement 
boxes.  These  are  durable  and  do  not  admit  of 
undesirable  birds  and  squirrels  enlarging  the  hole. 
The  cement  also  allows  some  ventilation.  They  are 
made  with  removable  lids. 

Boxes  of  roofing-paper.  Another  manufacturer 
makes  houses  out  of  roofing-paper.  These  are  of 
cylindrical  shape,  light  and  durable.  The  top  may 
be  easily  lifted  and  the  box  cleaned. 

Comparison  of  types.  When  we  come  to  compare 
these  different  types  to  decide  which  is  the  most 
attractive  to  the  birds,  we  find  each  type  of  box 
has  its  champions.  Mr.  E.  H.  Baynes,  in  his  "Wild 


232  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Bird  Guests,"  writes  very  enthusiastically  of  the 
VonBerlepsch  type,  and  prefers  it  to  any  other  type. 
He  cites  twelve  species  of  birds  known  to  use  these 
boxes,  of  which  three  species,  the  hairy  and  downy 
woodpeckers  and  the  red-breasted  nuthatch,  have 
never  been  known  to  use  any  other  type.  On  the 
other  hand,  Mr.  Edward  H.  Forbush,  after  three 
years'  trial  of  the  Von  Berlepsch  type  conies  to 
the  conclusion  that  most  Massachusetts  birds  do 
not  prefer  them  to  the  hollow  kind  or  even  to  the 
rectangular  box.  But  the  only  way  of  finding  out 
is  to  put  up  the  different  types  of  houses,  side  by 
side,  and  see  which  the  birds  choose.  This  has  been 
done  by  several  men  and  the  results  in  these  cases 
were  that  most  birds  showed  a  preference  for  the 
plain-box  type  over  the  hollow-log  type.  This  pref- 
erence doubtless  varies  for  different  birds  and  pos- 
sibly for  the  same  species  in  different  parts  of  the 
country. 

So  far  as  the  author  has  been  able  to  gather  evi- 
dence on  this  question,  the  following  seems  a  fair 
statement  of  the  case  at  the  present  time:  —  Wrens, 
bluebirds,  and  tree  swallows  will  occupy  almost  any 
convenient  type,  perhaps  preferring  the  plain  wooden 
box;  the  chickadee  and  flicker  will  probably  select 
one  type  as  quickly  as  the  other,  while  other  wood- 
peckers, such  as  the  downy  and  the  hairy,  and  the 
nuthatches,  which  have  not  occupied  bird-houses 
so  commonly,  may  prefer  the  hollow-log  type.  It 


THREE   TYPES    OF   NESTING-BOXES 


OPEN    NESTING-BOXES    FOR    ROBIN   AND    PHCEBE 


NESTING-BOXES 


233 


is  impossible  to  make  any  definite  statement  re- 
garding this  matter  till  a  large  number  of  experi- 
ments have  been  tried. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  houses 
occupied  on  the  author's  place  of  about  three  acres, 
situated  on  the  edge  of  a  small  city :  — 


Von  Berlepsch 
type 
(6  boxes  1914) 
(6  boxes  1915) 
1914        1915 

Imitation  on 
outside  only 
(1  box  1914) 
(3  boxes  1915) 
1914        1915 

Plain-box  type 

(8  boxes  1914) 
(7  boxes  1915) 
1914         1915 

Bluebird  . 

1 

2 

Flicker       

1 

Red-headed  wood- 
pecker   

1              1 

House  wren  

1               2 

1               2 

5 

Total  for  two  years  .  . 
Per  cent  occupied.  .  .  . 

7 
58 

3 
75 

7 
49 

Size  and  shape  of  house.  The  size  of  the  house 
depends  on  the  size  of  the  nest  made  by  the  birds. 
The  bottom  of  the  box  should  be  just  large  enough 
to  accommodate  the  nest  usually  built  by  the  bird. 
In  the  case  of  woodpeckers,  which  make  no  nests, 
the  size  of  the  house  depends  on  the  size  of  the  bird. 

A  great  variety  of  shapes  may  be  employed.  Some 
boxes  have  the  long  axis  vertical,  some  horizontal, 
and  others  are  nearly  cubical  in  shape.  Probably  no 
one  shape  is  best  for  all  birds,  but  the  box  with  the 
long  axis  vertical  has  one  advantage,  that  it  can  be 
made  practically  cat-proof  if  it  is  built  very  deep, 


234  BIRD  FRIENDS 

has  the  entrance  hole  near  the  top,  and  has  the 
roof  project  well  out  over  the  hole. 

Size  of  entrance  hole.  Two  features  of  the  en- 
trance hole  are  of  great  importance,  its  size  and  lo- 
cation. The  size  is  important  because  this  enables 
one  to  keep  out  larger  birds  than  the  one  for  which 
the  house  is  intended.  This  is  one  successful  way 
of  keeping  out  the  English  sparrow  from  houses 
intended  for  the  wren  and  the  chickadee,  and  the 
starling  from  houses  intended  for  these  birds  and 
for  the  bluebird  and  the  tree  swallow. 

The  smallest  hole  the  English  sparrow  can  enter 
is  one  and  a  quarter  inches,  and  the  starling  one  and 
three  quarters  inches.  Thus  a  one-and-one-eighth- 
inch  hole  will  exclude  the  sparrow  and  a  one-and- 
five-eighths-inch  hole  the  starling. 

The  birds  may  be  classed  in  four  groups  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  hole  needed :  — 

First  group:  small  birds  that  can  use  a  hole  too 
small  for  the  English  sparrow,  one  and  one  eighth 
inches  or  less;  chickadee,  house  wren,  Bewick's  wren, 
Carolina  wren. 

Second  group:  medium-sized  birds  that  can  use 
a  hole  too  small  for  the  starling,  one  and  one  fourth 
inches  to  one  and  five  eighths  inches;  tufted  tit- 
mouse, white-breasted  nuthatch,  downy  wood- 
pecker, bluebird,  violet-green  swallow,  tree  swallow, 
hairy  woodpecker. 

Third  group :  large  birds  that  require  an  entrance 


NESTING-BOXES  235 

of  two  or  three  inches;  house  finch,  crested  fly- 
catcher, red-headed  woodpecker,  flicker,  martin, 
saw- whet  owl,  screech  owl,  sparrow  hawk. 

Fourth  group:  extra  large  birds  that  require  an 
entrance  of  six  inches;  wood  duck  and  barn  owl. 

The  size  of  the  floor  for  the  various  groups  should 
be  about  as  follows :  — 

First  group 4  inches  square 

Second  group 5-6  inches  square 

Third  group 6-8  inches  square 

Fourth  group 10x18  inches 

Location  of  entrance  hole.  A  second  important 
point  about  the  entrance  hole  relates  to  its  loca- 
tion. It  should  be  near  the  top,  except  for  the  mar- 
tins. This  is  for  two  reasons;  first,  it  serves  as  a 
better  protection  from  cats,  and,  second,  it  makes 
it  necessary  for  the  young  to  be  well  matured  before 
they  are  able  to  climb  to  the  hole  and  leave  the  box, 
and  as  a  result  they  will  be  better  able  to  care  for 
themselves  and  to  escape  such  enemies  as  the  cat 
and  the  squirrel. 

Movable  covers  for  cleaning  box.  It  is  best  to 
have  all  boxes  made  so  that  they  can  be  easily 
opened.  This  is  advantageous  for  two  reasons :  first, 
because,  if  the  sparrows  are  using  the  house,  their 
eggs  may  be  taken  out;  and,  second,  because  early 
each  spring  the  house  should  be  cleaned  of  the  old 
nest  and  any  other  material  that  may  be  found 
there.  In  nature  the  birds'  nesting-sites  are  not 


236  BIRD  FRIENDS 

cleaned  out,  but  observations  that  have  been  made 
of  nesting-boxes  seem  to  indicate  that  birds  will 
more  readily  occupy  a  box  that  has  no  nesting- 
material  in  it.  The  construction  of  the  nest  is  a  part 
of  the  cycle  of  activities  that  goes  with  the  period 
of  reproduction,  and  doubtless  it  is  best  to  give  this 
nest-building  instinct  free  play.  The  roof  of  the 
house  can  easily  be  fastened  on  by  hinges  and  at- 
tached in  front  by  a  clasp. 

Putting  out  the  box.  In  putting  out  the  box  one 
needs  to  consider  the  following  matters:  (1)  the 
time,  (2)  the  location,  (3)  the  height,  (4)  the  method 
of  fastening,  (5)  protection  from  enemies. 

Time  to  put  out.  It  is  well  to  put  the  boxes  out 
early.  For  some  weeks  before  the  birds  seem  to  be 
ready  to  begin  nesting,  they  are  undoubtedly  flying 
about  searching  for  a  site,  and  the  houses,  if  placed 
out  early,  may  induce  some  birds  to  stay  of  whose 
presence  we  might  not  otherwise  have  had  the  least 
intimation.  By  putting  the  houses  out  early,  they 
will  also  become  more  weather-beaten  and  lose 
something  of  their  new  appearance.  Some  birds 
rear  two  broods,  as  the  wren  and  bluebird,  in  which 
case  the  box  may  be  occupied  by  the  second  brood, 
even  if  it  is  not  placed  out  till  late  in  the  season. 

In  the  case  of  the  martin-house,  if  it  is  kept  up  all 
the  year,  it  is  well  to  cover  the  holes  till  the  mar- 
tins return  in  the  spring,  so  as  to  keep  out  the  spar- 
rows. And  likewise  with  the  other  houses,  when 


BLUEBIRD  AT  ENTRANCE  TO 
NESTING-BOX 


HOUSE   WREN    AND 
TOMATO-CAN    HOUSE 


TREE   SWALLOW   AT 
NESTING-BOX 


MARTIN-HOUSE 

Accommodating  five  thousand  birds 


NESTING-BOXES  237 

the  sparrows  begin  nesting  in  them  very  early,  the 
holes  may  be  covered  till  time  for  the  native  birds 
to  return. 

Houses  for  woodpeckers  should  have  a  small 
amount  of  a  mixture  of  dry  dirt  and  sawdust  placed 
in  them  to  take  the  place  of  the  peckings  of  wood 
that  the  birds  leave  in  their  holes. 

Location  of  box.  The  location  of  the  box  is  im- 
portant. Very  few  birds  will  occupy  a  box  in  the 
dense  woods,  so  that  boxes  should  not  be  placed  in 
heavy  shade,  but  should  be  well  exposed.  Boxes  may 
be  placed  on  grape  arbors  and  trees  in  the  yard,  and 
even  on  porches.  Telephone-poles  furnish  good  lo- 
cations. Experiments  that  have  been  made  seem  to 
indicate  that  birds  prefer  a  house  placed  on  a  post 
to  one  placed  on  a  tree  and  that  they  prefer  houses 
in  the  open  or  light  shade  to  those  in  the  dense  shade. 

Mr.  Edward  H.  Forbush,  State  Ornithologist  of 
Massachusetts,  in  his  annual  report  for  1915  gives 
the  results  of  his  experiments  with  nesting-boxes 
during  the  past  season.  Twenty-five  boxes  were 
erected  on  poles  in  the  open,  and  fifty  boxes  on  trees. 
A  census  taken  on  July  4  showed  that  of  the  houses 
on  poles  ninety-six  per  cent  were  occupied  by  birds 
(including  one  pair  of  English  sparrows;  the  other 
sparrows  were  driven  away  by  removing  their  eggs) ; 
while  of  the  boxes  on  trees  only  eight  per  cent  were 
occupied.  Mr.  Forbush  also  cites  the  case  of  an- 
other man  who  mounted  twenty-one  nesting-boxes 


238  BIRD  FRIENDS 

on  short  poles  on  the  posts  of  his  pasture  fences,  of 
which  eighteen  boxes,  or  eighty-six  per  cent  were 
occupied.  For  three  years  the  author  had  a  nesting- 
box  placed  at  the  edge  of  the  woods,  during  which 
time  it  was  unoccupied.  In  the  spring  of  1915  this 
was  taken  down  and  placed  on  a  post  supporting  a 
martin-house.  Within  two  days  it  was  occupied  by 
a  pair  of  bluebirds.  These  results  all  point  strongly 
to  the  conclusion  that  more  boxes  will  be  occupied 
if  they  are  put  on  posts  in  the  open  than  if  put  on 
trees.  Although  the  author  has  had  many  houses 
occupied  that  were  placed  on  trees,  in  most  cases 
these  were  isolated  trees  standing  in  the  yard. 
Boxes  put  up  in  the  woods  and  on  trees  are  more 
apt  to  be  occupied  by  such  enemies  of  the  birds  as 
squirrels. 

Martins  prefer  their  houses  out  in  the  open  at 
some  little  distance  from  trees  or  buildings. 

Height.  Excessive  heights  should  be  avoided, 
in  general  birds  prefer  medium  heights,  from  eight 
to  twenty  feet.  The  details  for  the  different  birds 
are  given  in  the  table  on  page  243. 

Method  of  fastening.  The  house  should  be  fast- 
ened so  that  it  is  secure  against  the  winds,  but  so 
that  it  can  be  taken  down  easily  without  injuring 
the  box.  Some  have  a  screw-eye  or  loop  of  wire 
which  can  be  placed  on  a  hook;  others  have  a  hole 
in  the  back  which  will  fit  over  a  nail;  others  have 
an  extension  of  the  back  at  the  top  and  bottom  by 


NESTING-BOXES  239 

which  they  can  be  nailed  or  screwed  up;  and  still 
others  are  suspended  so  as  to  swing  in  the  wind. 

When  houses  are  put  up  on  posts,  the  posts  may 
be  jointed  near  the  ground  so  that  they  can  easily  be 
taken  down.  This  may  be  done  by  setting  into  the 
ground  a  short  post  projecting  a  few  feet  above  the 
surface,  and  fastening  to  this  the  post  on  which 
the  box  is  placed.  The  two  posts  may  be  fastened 
together  by  means  of  a  large  hinge  and  clasp,  or  by 
joining  the  two  posts  by  two  long  bolts.  When  it 
is  desired  to  take  down  the  house,  one  bolt  may 
be  removed  and  the  post  rotated  around  the  other. 
If  the  house  is  heavy,  as  for  the  martins,  two  posts 
may  be  driven  into  the  ground  and  the  other  post 
fastened  between  them. 

Protection  from  the  cat.  Two  enemies  of  our 
native  birds  are  unfortunately  very  common,  the 
cat  and  the  English  sparrow.  The  birds  can  be  pro- 
tected from  the  cat  to  some  extent,  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  house,  if  this  is  made  deep  with  the 
entrance  hole  placed  near  the  top  and  with  the  roof 
projecting  well  out  over  the  entrance.  Still  further 
protection  may  be  given  after  the  house  is  put  up. 
A  piece  of  zinc  or  tin  about  two  feet  wide  may  be 
wrapped  around  the  tree  or  post  below  the  box  and 
fastened  at  such  a  height  that  the  cat  cannot  leap 
above  it  from  the  ground.  It  is  unable  to  climb  over 
this.  If  boxes  are  placed  on  slippery  poles,  cats 
seldom  climb  them.  A  method  used  on  the  Ford 


240  BIRD  FRIENDS 

farm  is  to  fasten  the  boxes  to  the  top  of  posts  by 
means  of  iron  bands  about  two  feet  long.  Several 
of  the  dealers  mentioned  at  the  close  of  this  chap- 
ter advertise  cat  guards  that  may  be  put  around 
posts  or  trees. 

Protection  from  the  English  sparrow.  Various  de- 
vices have  been  tried  in  the  construction  of  the  house 
and  the  method  of  putting  it  out,  to  protect  birds 
from  the  sparrow.  Of  these  devices  the  author  knows 
of  only  one  which  is  always  successful;  that  is  to 
make  the  hole  so  small  (one  and  one  eighth  inches 
or  less)  that  the  sparrow  cannot  enter,  but  large 
enough  for  small  birds  such  as  the  wren  and  chick- 
adee. Other  devices  which  have  been  suggested, 
such  as  leaving  off  the  perch  from  the  house  and  sus- 
pending the  house  so  that  it  can  move,  are  not  uni- 
versally successful.  In  the  author's  experience  they 
have  proved  of  little  value.  He  has  found  that  the 
sparrows  do  not  use  the  moving  houses  as  often  as 
the  stationary  houses,  but  they  do  use  them  in  about 
the  same  proportion  as  the  other  birds,  so  that  little 
is  gained  in  suspending  the  houses. 

If  the  sparrows  begin  to  use  a  box,  the  eggs  can 
be  removed  every  week  or  two  and  thus  the  birds 
may  be  prevented  from  raising  young,  at  least,  and 
sometimes  the  sparrows  will  leave  and  thus  give  an 
opportunity  for  other  birds  to  use  the  box.  On  May 
26,  1915,  Mr.  E.  H.  Forbush  found  in  twenty-five 
of  his  nesting-boxes,  ten  tree  swallows'  nests,  ten 


NESTING-BOXES  341 

English  sparrows',  and  two  bluebirds'.  Shortly  after 
this  the  eggs  of  the  sparrows  were  removed  and  no 
more  eggs  were  laid,  although  a  new  nest  was  built. 
On  July  4,  there  were  twenty  swallows'  nests,  three 
bluebirds',  and  one  English  sparrow's.  So  that  as 
a  result  of  removing  the  sparrows'  eggs  the  number 
of  native  birds  using  the  boxes  was  about  doubled. 
But  the  only  final  solution  of  the  problem  seems  to 
be  to  kill  the  sparrow  either  by  shooting  or  by  trap- 
ping, as  explained  in  Chapter  XIV. 

The  most  essential  points  to  consider  in  making 
bird-boxes  may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows: 
(1)  the  size  of  the  entrance  hole,  which  should  be 
of  the  right  size  for  the  bird  desired;  (2)  the  lo- 
cation of  the  box,  which  should  be  on  posts  in  the 
open  rather  than  on  trees  in  the  shade;  and  (3) 
the  protection  of  the  boxes  from  the  birds'  enemies, 
especially,  the  cat,  the  English  sparrow,  and  the 
squirrels.  Of  secondary  importance  are  the  following 
points;  material  of  which  made,  size,  shape,  type, 
height  put  out,  and  direction  in  which  the  entrance 
hole  faces. 

Open  houses.  There  are  some  birds  which  do  not 
nest  in  cavities,  that  will,  however,  build  nests  in 
shelters  having  open  sides.  Birds  which  have  been  re- 
ported as  using  these  shelters  are  listed  on  page  227. 

For  the  catbird,  song  sparrow,  and  brown  thrasher 
the  shelter  should  be  open  on  all  four  sides  and 
placed  in  shrubbery  where  these  birds  nest. 


242 


BIRD  FRIENDS 


OPEN  SHELTERS 


Height 

Name  of  bird 

Kind  of 

Floor 

Height 

above 

shelter 

(inches) 

(inches) 

ground 

(feet) 

Robin 

One  or  more 

sides  open 

6x8 

8 

6  to  15 

Phoebe  

One  or  more 

sides  open 

6x6 

6 

8  to  12 

Barn  swallow 

One  or  more 

sides  open 

6x6 

6 

8  to  12 

Song  sparrow 

All  sides  open 

6x6 

6 

1  to    3 

Brown  thrasher 

All  sides  open 

7x9 

g 

1  to    S 

Catbird   

All  sides  open 

6x8 

8 

3  to  10 

A  shelter  with  the  front  and  two  ends  open  may 
be  placed  where  robins  and  phoebes  naturally  nest, 
and  sometimes  simple  shelves  placed  in  appropriate 
situations  are  used  by  these  birds. 

A  shelter  with  the  front  and  one  side  open,  if 
placed  under  the  eaves  of  a  barn,  may  be  occupied 
by  barn  swallows. 

Some  of  the  important  points  to  consider  in  the 
building  of  a  box  for  a  particular  bird  are  given  for 
convenience  in  the  accompanying  tabular  form, 
which  is  taken,  with  some  changes,  from  Farmer's 
Bulletin  No.  609,  "Bird-Houses  and  How  to  Build 
Them."  These  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  the  size 
of  the  entrance,  the  smallest  first. 


NESTING-BOXES 


243 


NESTING-BOXES 


Name  of  bird 

Diameter 
of 
entrance 
(inches) 

Floor  of 
Cavity 

(inches) 

Depth 
of  Cavity 

(inches) 

Entrance 
above 
floor 
(inches) 

Height 
above 
ground 
(feet) 

f  House  wren  

1 

4x   4 

6  to   8 

4  to   6 

6  to  10 

I 

Bewick's  wren  .... 
Vigors's  wren  .... 
Carolina  chickadee 
Carolina  wren  .... 
Black-capped 
chickadee  
^  Parkman's  wren  .  . 
r  Tufted  titmouse.  . 
White-breasted 
nuthatch  
Downy  wood- 
pecker   

1 
1 

1 

Ii 
i| 

H 
H 

4x   4 
4x   4 
4x   4 
4x   4 

4x   4 
4x   4 
4x   4 

4x   4 

4x    4 

6  to   8 
6  to   8 
6  to   8 
6  to   8 

8  to  10 
6  to   8 
8  to  10 

8  to  10 
8  to  10 

4  to   6 
4  to   6 
4  to   6 

4  to   6 

6  to   8 
4  to   6 
6  to   8 

6  to   8 
7  to   9 

6  to  10 
6  to  10 
8  to  10 
6  to  10 

6  to  15 
8  to  10 
6  to  15 

12  to  20 
6  to  20 

fcflj 

Bluebird  

if 

5x   5 

8  to  10 

6  to   8 

5  to  10 

a 

Violet-green 
swallow 

U 

5x    5 

6 

4  to   5 

10  to  15 

CO 

Tree  swallow 

H 

5x    5 

6 

4  to   5 

10  to  15 

Hairy  wood- 
pecker      

H 

6x   6 

12  to  15 

10  to  12 

12  to  20 

House  finch  

2 

6x    6 

6 

4 

8  to  12 

Crested  flycatcher. 
Red-headed  wood- 
pecker   

2 

2 

6x   6 
6x   6 

8  to  10 
12  to  15 

6  to   8 
10  to  12 

8  to  20 
12  to  20 

Flicker  

M 

7x   7 

16  to  18 

14  to  16 

6  to  20 

Martin  

4 

6x   6 

6 

1 

15  to  20 

Saw-whet  owl  .... 
Sparrow  hawk.  .  .  . 
Screech  owl   .  . 

«I 

3 
3 

6x   6 

8x   8 
8x    8 

10  to  12 
12  to  15 
12  to  15 

8  to  10 
10  to  12 
10  to  12 

12  to  20 
10  to  30 
10  to  30 

Barn  owl    

6 

10x18 

15  to  18 

4 

12  to  18 

Wood  duck...    . 

6 

10x18 

10  to  15 

3 

4  to  20 

Martins.  Martins  prefer  to  nest  in  colonies,  so 
that  houses  should  be  provided  which  contain  a 
number  of  compartments.  Each  dimension  of  a  sin- 
gle room  should  be  about  six  or  seven  inches.  The 


244  BIRD  FRIENDS 

entrance  hole  may  be  either  square  or  circular,  and 
should  be  about  two  and  a  half  inches  across.  The 
best  height  for  erecting  the  house  is  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  feet,  although  houses  placed  much  higher 
have  been  used.  To  prevent  the  English  sparrow 
from  getting  established  early  in  the  spring,  the 
house  may  be  taken  down  in  the  fall  and  put  up 
again  in  the  spring.  This  may  be  easily  done  if  the 
pole  is  put  up  as  suggested  on  page  239.  Directions 
for  making  a  simple  house  out  of  a  barrel  are  given 
in  Mr.  E.  H.  Forbush's  "Useful  Birds  and  Their 
Protection."  This  type  of  house  has  been  adopted 
by  the  Meriden  Bird  Club. 

Most  birds  will  use  a  hole  which  just  permits 
them  to  enter,  but  the  martin  prefers  a  hole  large 
enough  to  admit  light  while  it  is  entering,  so  that 
while  it  could  just  enter  a  one-and-five-eighths-inch 
hole,  the  openings  in  martin-houses  are  made 
about  two  and  one  half  inches  in  diameter.  As  it 
seems  probable  that  starlings  may  drive  martins 
from  their  houses,  it  has  been  suggested  that  the 
hole  be  made  small  enough  (one  and  five  eighths 
inches)  to  exclude  the  starling  and  that  a  small  hole 
about  one  half  inch  in  diameter  be  bored  above  the 
entrance  to  admit  light  while  the  bird  is  entering. 

Providing  nesting-material.  There  are  still  other 
birds,  which,  while  they  will  not  allow  us  to  choose 
the  exact  site  of  their  nest  for  them,  may  sometimes 
be  induced  to  nest  in  our  immediate  vicinity  if  some 


MR.  FORBUSH'S   SCREECH   OWL    IN    NESTING-BOX 


NESTING-BOXES  245 

materials  which  can  be  utilized  in  the  construction 
of  the  nest  are  put  in  a  conspicuous  place  which  is 
easily  accessible.  An  examination  which  the  author 
made  of  a  collection  of  nests  showed  that  twenty-one 
species  used  materials  provided  for  them  by  man. 
Horsehair  was  used  by  eleven  species,  strings  by 
seven,  mud  by  four,  paper  by  three,  cloth  by  two, 
and  feathers  by  two.  The  Baltimore  oriole  uses  a 
large  amount  of  such  materials  as  string  and  yarn; 
the  chipping  sparrow  nearly  always  lines  its  nest 
with  horsehair;  robins  commonly  use  pieces  of  cloth; 
vireos,  the  wood  pewee,  the  least  flycatcher,  and  the 
kingbird  may  line  their  nests  with  cotton  batting. 

Material  to  be  exposed.  Some  of  the  materials 
which  may  be  exposed  on  fences,  bushes,  trees,  etc., 
are  the  following:  yarn,  string,  thread,  rags,  horse- 
hair, straw,  tufts  of  cotton  and  wool,  small  strips  of 
cloth,  pieces  of  grapevine  bark,  feathers,  cotton 
batting,  and  shoemakers'  flax.  This  flax  is  a  good 
substitute  for  the  plant-fibers  which  many  birds  use. 
The  yarn  and  strings  should  be  of  a  somber  color, 
and  should  be  cut  into  lengths  of  not  over  twelve 
inches,  lest  the  birds  become  entangled  and  hang 
themselves.  If  any  of  this  material  is  taken  by  the 
birds,  it  furnishes  opportunity  for  locating  the  nest, 
so  that  it  may  be  watched  and  such  means  taken 
as  may  be  necessary  to  protect  the  occupants.  Dur- 
ing dry  seasons,  if  pans  of  mud  are  set  in  easily  ac- 
cessible and  protected  places,  they  may  be  found  and 


246  BIRD  FRIENDS 

used  by  such  birds  as  the  robin,  barn  swallow,  and 
phoebe. 

Results.  As  one  example  of  what  results  one  may 
expect,  the  table  on  page  233  shows  the  results  on 
the  author's  place  for  the  years  1914  and  1915. 

Mr.  Neil  M.  Ladd,  of  Greenwich,  Connecticut, 
reports  that  on  his  place  of  ten  acres  there  were  but 
twelve  nests  representing  four  species  when  he  first 
began  to  take  steps  to  increase  the  birds  around  his 
home.  As  a  result  of  four  years'  efforts,  the  number 
was  increased  to  seventy-five  nests  representing 
twenty  species. 

Mr.  Edward  H.  Forbush,  in  his  annual  report  for 
1915,  writes  that  within  an  area  of  eight  acres  on  his 
farm,  during  the  season  of  1915,  one  hundred  and 
twenty-six  young  birds  were  reared,  representing 
four  species,  where  prior  to  1914  not  one  bird  of  any 
of  these  species  was  reared,  or  could  have  been 
reared,  as  there  were  no  nesting-places  for  them. 

Dealers  in  apparatus  to  attract  birds.  One  of  the 
most  interesting  developments  during  the  past  five 
years  has  been  the  appearance  of  a  large  number  of 
dealers  who  advertise  for  sale  various  types  of  ap- 
pliances for  attracting  birds.  The  appearance  of 
these  dealers  indicates  that  there  is  a  widespread 
interest  in  birds  and  a  demand  for  these  appliances. 
Below  is  given  a  list  of  the  dealers  whose  advertise- 
ments the  author  has  seen.  All  publish  circulars 
which  may  be  had  on  application. 


NESTING-BOXES  247 

The  following  abbreviations  are  used  to  indicate 
the  nature  of  the  apparatus  for  sale  by  each  dealer : 

(N=  nesting-boxes;     M=  martin-houses;    W=  winter    feeding 

devices;  F  =  fountains;  S  =  sparrow-traps;  C  =  cat-traps.) 
American  Column  Company,  Battle  Creek,  Michigan.  N. 
The  Audubon  Bird-House  Company,  Meriden,  New  Hamp- 
shire. N;W;F;C. 
Chicago    Birdhouse    Company,    624    South   Norton   Street, 

Chicago.    N;  M;  W;  F;  S;  C. 

Albert  Crescent,  Thorn's  River,  New  Jersey.  N;  M;  W;  S. 
Joseph  H.  Dodson,  701  Security  Building,  Chicago.  N;  M;  W; 

F'  S*  C 
Henry  A.  Dreer,  714  Chestnut  Street,  Philadelphia.  N;  M;  W; 

F;S. 
Electric  Fountain  Co.,  348  G  West  42d  St.,  New  York  City. 

F. 
Farley  and  Loelscher  Manufacturing  Company,  Dubuque.  Iowa. 

N;  M;  W;  S. 

Garden  Unique,  3163  Iveson  Ave.,  Berwio,  111.  N. 
Greenwich  Bird  Protective  Society,  Greenwich,  Connecticut. 

N;  W;  S;  C. 

Holm  &  Olson,  20  W.  Fifth  St.,  St.  Paul,  Minn.    N;  W;  F. 
Ideal  Bird-House  Company,  New  Windsor,  Maryland.    N;  M. 
Jacobs  Bird-House  Company,  Waynesburg,  Pennsylvania.   N; 

M;  W;  S. 

Jersey  Keystone  Wood  Co.,  Trenton,  N.J.    N;  W. 
Louis  Kuertz,  Route  2,  Loveland,  Ohio.  N;  M;  W. 
Lansing  Company,  Lansing,  Mich.  N. 
Liberty  Bell  Bird  Club,  "  Farm  Journal,"  Philadelphia.  N;  M; 

W;S. 

H.  B.  Logan,  Montevideo,  Minnesota.  N;  M. 
Maplewood  Biological  Laboratory,  Stamford,  Connecticut.    N; 

M;  W;  F. 
Matthews  Manufacturing  Company,  Williamson  Building, 

Cleveland,  Ohio.  N;  M;  W;  F;  S. 

Henry  F.  Mitchell,  518  Market  Street,  Philadelphia,  N;  M. 
Neighorhood  Craft,  Locust  Valley,  Long  Island,  N.Y.  N;  M; 

W. 


248  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Winthrop  Packard,  Canton,  Massachusetts.  N;  M;  W. 

Philip  E.  Perry,  P.O.  Box  2275,  Boston,  Massachusetts.  N. 

Pinedale    Bird-Nesting-Box    Company,    Wareham,     Massa- 
chusetts. N. 

Rookwood  Pottery  Co.,  Cincinnati,  O.    F. 

Sharonware  Workshop,  42  Lexington  Avenue,  New  York  City. 
F. 

Simplex   Bird  Apparatus  Company,  Demarest,  New  Jersey. 
W. 

West  Chester  Bird-Box  Company,  West  Chester,  Pennsyl- 
vania. N. 

Wheatley  Pottery  Company,  2426  Reading  Place,  Cincinnati, 
Ohio.  N;F. 

Charles  E.  White,  Box  45,  Kenilworth,  Illinois.    N;  W. 

Whip-O-Will-O  Furniture  Co.,  352  Adams  Ave.,  Scranton,  Pa. 
N;W;F. 


CHAPTER  XX 

FEEDING   THE   WINTER   BIRDS 

DURING  the  winter  season  the  opportunity  of- 
fered for  studying  birds,  at  a  time  when  nature's 
activities  are  at  their  lowest  ebb,  is  most  welcome, 
and  especially  so  because  the  birds  may  become  so 
tame  that  they  will  feed  from  the  window-sill  while 
one  is  sitting  just  inside  the  window,  thus  affording 
opportunity  to  observe  them  at  close  range. 

Value  to  man.  There  is  also  a  great  practical 
value  in  attracting  the  birds  around  the  farm  and 
garden  that  they  may  feed  upon  insects'  eggs  and 
hibernating  insects  and  remain  in  the  spring  to 
attack  the  newly  hatched  caterpillars. 

A  very  instructive  experiment  was  tried  by  Mr. 
Forbush  in  Massachusetts.  An  old  neglected  or- 
chard was  selected,  and  during  the  winter  special 
effort  was  made  to  attract  the  birds  by  means  of  suet 
and  other  foods.  By  this  means  nuthatches,  chicka- 
dees, woodpeckers,  and  creepers  were  attracted  to 
the  orchard,  remaining  during  the  winter  months. 
Observations  of  the  feeding-habits  and  examination 
of  the  stomach-contents  of  a  few  chickadees  showed 
that  they  were  eating  large  numbers  of  eggs  of  the 
fall  canker-worm  moth,  and  the  larvae  and  pupae 


250  BIRD  FRIENDS 

of  other  injurious  insects.  In  the  spring,  when  the 
female  canker-worm  moths  appeared  in  the  orchard 
the  chickadee  fed  on  these.  While  the  trees  in  the 
neighboring  orchards  were  badly  infected  with  the 
worms,  comparatively  few  were  found  in  the  or- 
chard which  had  been  frequented  by  the  winter 
birds,  and  the  few  which  did  appear  were  easily  dis- 
posed of  by  the  summer  birds  which  came  to  the 
locality.  The  trees  in  other  orchards  were  almost 
stripped  of  their  foliage,  while  this  one  retained 
its  leaves,  and,  with  one  exception,  was  the  only 
orchard  in  the  neighborhood  to  produce  any  fruit. 
It  should  be  noted  that  the  exception  was  the  near- 
est orchard  to  the  one  on  which  the  experiment 
was  tried. 

Need  of  feeding  birds  in  winter.  The  winter  is 
a  season  when,  from  the  bird's  standpoint,  assist- 
ance in  obtaining  food  is  particularly  welcome. 
When  heavy  snows  lie  on  the  ground,  much  of  the 
supply  of  the  seed-eating  birds  is  hidden;  and  when 
the  tree-trunks  are  covered  with  ice,  insect-eating 
birds  find  it  difficult  to  break  through  this  coating, 
to  secure  insects  and  their  eggs  in  the  bark  beneath. 
Under  ordinary  conditions  our  birds  can  withstand 
quite  cold  weather  if  they  are  well  supplied  with 
food;  but  their  food  is  digested  so  quickly  that  birds 
require  a  large  amount  of  it  and  frequent  access  to 
it.  Birds  may  also  perish  from  exposure  to  severe 
storms  and  weather,  as  well  as  from  starvation,  so 


SONG   SPARROW 


DOWNY    WOODPECKER 


sun 


CHICKADEE 


HERMIT    THRUSH 


A    BIRD'S    TEPEE  SELF-SUPPLYING   FEED   BOX 

Made  of  bean-poles  with  the  vines 
still  attached 


FEEDING  THE  WINTER  BIRDS         251 

that  shelter  as  well  as  food  is  necessary  to  protect 
the  winter  birds. 

Birds  to  expect.  The  success  of  winter  feeding 
and  the  kinds  of  birds  one  may  expect  to  come  and 
feed  vary  with  the  locality  and  with  the  season.  In 
general  more  birds  will  visit  feeding-stations  in  the 
Northern  States,  where  the  severe  storms  cover  their 
natural  food-supply,  than  in  the  Southern  States, 
and  one  may  expect  more  birds  during  a  severe  win- 
ter with  heavy  snows  than  in  a  mild  winter  with 
little  snow. 

From  a  number  of  reports  recorded  in  "Bird- 
Lore"  and  elsewhere,  including  forty-five  observers, 
representing  fourteen  States,  situated  chiefly  in  the 
northeastern  section  of  the  country,  the  author  has 
made  a  brief  summary  of  the  birds  known  to  eat 
food  put  out  for  them.  This  includes  forty-nine 
species  of  birds  of  which  the  ten  most  common  in 
the  order  of  frequency  are  the  chickadee,  white- 
breasted  nuthatch,  downy  woodpecker,  blue  jay, 
junco,  hairy  woodpecker,  tree  sparrow,  red-breasted 
nuthatch,  brown  creeper,  and  song  sparrow. 

Feeding  from  the  hand.  With  the  exercise  of  a 
little  patience  there  is  the  possibility,  not  only  that 
birds  will  come  to  the  window  to  feed,  but  that  they 
will  soon  feed  out  of  one's  hand.  Of  the  forty-nine 
species  of  birds  previously  mentioned  as  using  food 
provided  for  them,  twenty-nine  have  become  suffi- 
ciently tame  to  feed  from  a  window  shelf,  and  thir- 


BIRD  FRIENDS 

teen  have  fed  from  the  hand.  Those  reported  as 
feeding  from  the  hand,  arranged  in  the  order  of  the 
number  of  records,  are  the  chickadee,  red-breasted 
nuthatch,  white-breasted  nuthatch,  redpoll,  tufted 
titmouse,  Oregon  jay,  Canada  jay,  evening  gros- 
beak, bluebird,  chipping  sparrow,  pine  grosbeak, 
white-winged  crossbill,  and  pine  siskin. 

Kinds  of  food.  As  far  as  possible  one  should  put 
out  the  kinds  of  food  which  birds  prefer;  but  in 
times  of  great  hunger  birds  will  eat  many  foods 
which  under  ordinary  circumstances  would  not  be 
attractive  to  them.  Birds  may  be  divided  into  two 
groups  according  to  their  food  habits,  seed-eating 
and  insect-eating,  although  many  birds  eat  both 
seeds  and  insects.  But  this  suggests  that  we  may  seek 
to  find  substitutes  for  these  two  classes  of  natural 
food.  Without  question  the  best  food  for  insectiv- 
orous birds  is  suet.  It  is  cheap,  does  not  freeze 
easily,  and  is  eaten  by  many  birds. 

The  seed-eating  birds  live  largely  on  weed  seeds  in 
nature,  but  many  other  kinds  of  seeds  are  relished 
by  them.  Among  the  best  are  hemp,  sunflower, 
millet,  and  peanuts.  Other  foods  which  have  been 
eaten  by  birds  are:  crumbs,  cracked  corn,  fat  pork, 
dog-biscuits,  oats,  oatmeal,  squash  seed,  nuts,  mar- 
row of  bones,  wheat,  and  boiled  rice. 

The  food  should  be  supplied  with  regularity,  par- 
ticularly so  during  stormy  or  severe  weather,  so 
that  the  birds  may  be  able  to  find  a  supply  at  all 


FEEDING  THE  WINTER  BIRDS         253 

times.  Care  should  be  taken,  in  the  use  of  such  foods 
as  decay  or  sour  easily,  to  see  that  the  spoiled  food  is 
removed  and  a  fresh  supply  provided;  at  times  it 
may  be  well  to  supply  water. 

Methods  of  putting  out  food.  Food  may  be  put 
out  in  a  great  variety  of  ways:  (1)  on  the  ground, 
(2)  on  shelves,  (3)  fastened  on  limbs  of  trees,  (4) 
in  suet  baskets,  (5)  on  old  Christmas  trees,  (6)  in 
an  automatic  hopper,  (7)  in  an  Audubon  food- 
house,  (8)  in  a  weathercock  food-house,  (9)  in  a 
window  box,  and  (10)  on  a  moving  counter. 

On  the  ground.  To  supply  seed-eating  birds,  a 
bit  of  ground  may  be  swept  clear  of  the  snow,  or  the 
snow  trampled  down,  and  chaff,  crumbs,  and  the 
various  kinds  of  grain  and  other  seeds  scattered 
there.  To  this  may  come  such  birds  as  the  sparrow, 
junco,  snow  bunting,  blue  jay,  and  quail.  This  food 
may  be  protected  by  means  of  boards  placed  over 
it  in  the  form  of  an  "A."  A  large  brush-heap, 
covered  well  with  evergreen  boughs,  with  grain 
thrown  under  it,  does  very  well. 

Shelves.  Various  kinds  of  shelves  may  be  used. 
In  its  simplest  form  a  shelf  may  consist  of  a  board  at- 
tached to  a  tree,  with  a  narrow  strip  around  the  edge 
to  prevent  the  food  from  being  blown  off.  This  may 
be  placed  at  first  at  a  little  distance  till  the  birds 
become  accustomed  to  coming  to  it,  and  then  brought 
nearer  to  the  house;  or  it  may  be  placed  on  the  top 
of  a  short  post. 


254  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Window  shelf.  The  shelf  may  be  placed  at  a  win- 
dow, and  many  birds  will  become  so  tame  that  they 
will  feed  here,  even  when  a  person  is  sitting  by  the 
window  inside.  This  shelf  should  be  wide,  so  as  to 
allow  room  for  a  number  of  birds  to  dine  at  once. 
If  covered  with  burlap,  the  small  seeds  and  crumbs 
will  blow  away  less  easily.  It  would  doubtless  be 
worth  while  to  arrange  some  kind  of  awning  or  roof 
over  this  to  keep  off  the  snow,  so  that  the  birds 
might  be  able  to  find  food  during  the  storms. 

Suet-box.  Suet  may  be  tied  to  branches  of  trees, 
or  a  suet-box,  adapted  for  hanging  on  a  tree,  can  be 
easily  made.  A  piece  of  half -inch  board  about  five 
by  six  inches  forms  the  back.  Around  this  on  the 
two  sides  and  across  the  bottom  are  nailed  strips 
of  narrow  half-inch  boards,  about  two  inches 
wide.  Across  these  strips  is  fastened  a  piece  of 
poultry-wire  netting  with  one-inch  mesh  or  a  piece 
of  hardware  cloth.  The  top  of  the  box  is  left  open 
for  inserting  the  suet.  A  screw-eye  is  screwed  into 
the  top  of  the  back  so  that  the  box  may  be  sus- 
pended from  a  nail  driven  into  a  tree.  This  pre- 
vents the  birds  from  carrying  off  large  pieces  of  suet 
and  wasting  it,  but  enables  them  to  feed  through 
the  meshes.  Suet-baskets  may  be  bought  of  several 
of  the  dealers  listed  in  Chapter  XIX. 

Christmas  tree.  After  the  Christmas  season  is 
over,  instead  of  throwing  away  the  tree,  it  may  be 
loaded  with  food  for  the  birds.  Suet  and  berries  may 


SUET-BASKETS 

One  in  lower  left-hand  corner  made  by  fifth-grade  boy  in  manual-training 
department 


RED-BREASTED   NUTHATCH 


WHITE-BREASTED   NUTHATCH 


FEEDING  THE  WINTER  BIRDS         255 

be  fastened  to  the  branches  and  bags  containing 
seeds  and  nuts  may  be  suspended.  This  tree  may 
be  fastened  upright  in  the  yard  or  the  small  tip  may 
be  placed  on  a  window  shelf. 

Automatic  hopper.  Several  automatic  feeders  on 
the  principle  of  poultry  hoppers  are  now  for  sale 
on  the  market,  or  they  can  be  easily  made.  The 
large  hopper  can  be  filled  with  seeds,  which  come  out 
of  a  small  opening  at  the  bottom  leading  to  a  shelf. 
As  fast  as  the  seeds  are  used,  others  fall  down  to 
take  their  place.  When  once  filled  this  may  last 
several  weeks. 

The  Audubon  food-house.  A  modification  of  the 
Von  Berlepsch  food-house  has  been  made  by  Mr. 
Frederic  H.  Kennard  in  this  country  and  has  been 
widely  and  successfully  used.  This  consists  of  a  post 
from  five  to  six  feet  above  ground  and  three  feet  in 
the  ground.  A  rustic  appearance  is  given  by  using 
a  stout  post  with  the  bark  on,  such  as  red  cedar. 
The  house  consists  of  a  square  hip  roof  two  feet, 
ten  inches  over  all,  and  supports  beneath  it  four 
glazed  sashes,  two  feet  long  by  ten  and  one  half 
inches  high,  and  jointed  at  the  corners.  It  is  fast- 
ened to  the  post  by  means  of  a  wooden  block  two 
inches  thick,  attached  beneath  the  apex  of  the 
roof,  with  a  hole  in  the  center,  into  which  the  top  of 
the  post  is  driven  and  nailed.  There  are  two  food 
shelves  fastened  about  the  post,  an  upper  one, 
twelve  inches  in  diameter  on  a  level  with  the  bottom 


256  BIRD  FRIENDS 

of  the  sash,  and  a  lower  tray,  eight  inches  in  diameter 
placed  about  ten  inches  lower.  This  lower  one  is 
used  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  birds  to  the  upper 
one,  where  most  of  the  food  is  kept.  In  the  sashes  are 
fastened  pieces  of  glass. 

The  advantages  of  this  food-house  are,  first,  that 
the  birds  are  protected  from  storms;  second,  that 
they  are  protected  from  cats;  and  third,  that  the 
glass  allows  one  to  watch  the  birds  inside  as  well  as 
throwing  light  on  the  food. 

Weathercock  food-house.  The  weathercock  food- 
house  consists  of  a  box  open  on  one  side  and  so  ar- 
ranged on  a  pivot  that  it  is  easily  turned  by  the  wind 
by  means  of  long  vanes  projecting  back.  The  front 
may  be  made  of  glass.  Whichever  way  the  wind  blows, 
the  house  turns  so  that  the  open  side  is  away  from 
the  wind.  Sometimes  the  ends  are  made  of  glass  also. 
This  enables  one  to  see  the  birds  feeding  there.  This 
house  has  been  tried  by  the  Meriden  Bird  Club  and 
found  to  work  satisfactorily. 

Window  box.  The  window  box  was  suggested  by 
Mr.  William  Dutcher  and  was  worked  out  by  Mr. 
Baynes  at  Meriden.  This  consists  of  a  frame  that  fits 
under  the  open  window  and  projects  into  the  room, 
the  top,  sides,  and  back  being  of  glass.  At  the  top 
is  a  hinged  door  through  which  food  may  be  passed. 
Mr.  Baynes  reports  this  as  being  very  successful. 

Moving  counter.  One  of  the  most  satisfactory 
plans  which  the  author  has  tried  is  a  shelf  moving 


FEEDING  THE  WINTER  BIRDS         257 

on  a  wire.  The  details  of  this  have  been  worked 
out  very  ingeniously  by  Edward  Uehling,  who,  at 
the  time  this  work  was  done,  was  a  boy  in  the  eighth 
grade  of  school.  The  author  was  closely  associated 
with  him  in  this  work  and  tried  a  similar  device  at 
his  own  home.  Some  of  the  most  successful  results 
of  which  the  author  has  known  followed  from  this 
plan  as  worked  out  by  his  friend  during  the  winter 
of  1906  and  1907.  A  wire  was  put  up,  sloping  from 
a  second-story  window  to  a  tree  about  forty  feet  dis- 
tant. On  this  wire  the  lunch  counter  was  sus- 
pended by  means  of  two  pulleys  set  in  a  frame.  To 
this  frame  a  string  was  attached  and  run  to  the  win- 
dow. The  slope  of  the  wire  carried  the  counter  to- 
ward the  tree,  so  that  it  could  be  kept  in  any  desired 
position  along  the  wire.  On  this  were  placed  suet, 
nuts,  sunflower  seeds,  and  other  foods.  At  first  this 
was  allowed  to  remain  out  at  full  length  of  the  wire, 
touching  the  tree.  Tree-climbing  birds  soon  found 
this  and  came  regularly  to  feed  upon  it.  After  the 
birds  had  become  accustomed  to  coming  to  the 
counter  in  this  position,  it  was  drawn  up  a  little 
nearer  each  day,  till  at  the  end  of  a  month  it  had 
been  pulled  to  the  window.  Those  birds  which  at 
first  came  to  it  continued  to  do  so  even  when  it  was 
brought  up  near  enough  to  touch  the  window.  The 
following  winter  a  roof  was  placed  over  the  trough, 
which  partially  prevented  the  food  from  being  cov- 
ered by  snow  during  storms. 


258  BIRD  FRIENDS 

On  one  cold  day  when  the  snow  was  deep,  the 
author  and  Mr.  Uehling  watched  the  birds  from 
within  the  window  from  6  A.  M.  to  5  P.  M.  The  first 
birds  came  at  6.42  and  the  last  at  4.23.  Eight 
species  of  birds  visited  the  counter,  including  the 
chickadee,  the  junco,  the  white-breasted  nuthatch, 
the  blue  jay,  the  hermit  thrush,  the  downy  wood- 
pecker, the  English  sparrow,  and  the  brown  creeper 
(arranged  in  the  order  of  the  number  of  visits  made) . 
A  total  number  of  two  hundred  and  two  visits  were 
made,  or  an  average  of  twenty  per  hour.  All  the 
birds  at  some  time  during  the  day,  except  the  spar- 
row and  the  creeper,  came  to  the  window  shelf  or  the 
moving  counter.  The  downy  and  the  creeper  ate  only 
suet,  and  the  junco  and  the  sparrow  only  bread 
crumbs. 

Difficulties.  The  same  two  difficulties  confront  us 
here  as  in  providing  nesting-houses  —  the  cat  and 
the  English  sparrow.  The  birds  may  be  easily 
protected  from  cats  by  wrapping  a  piece  of  tin  or 
zinc  around  the  tree  below  the  food;  by  putting  the 
window  shelf  at  a  second-story  window;  or  by  sus- 
pending the  counter  from  a  wire  as  explained  on 
page  257. 

English  sparrows.  The  sparrow  problem,  how- 
ever, is  not  so  easily  solved.  In  one  way  the  diffi- 
culty is  not  so  acute  as  with  the  nesting-houses, 
where  two  birds  cannot  occupy  the  same  apartment; 
for  it  is  possible  to  furnish  food  both  for  the  spar- 


SHELTER   FOR    BIRDS'  FOOD 

Fifteen  birds  feeding,  —  song  sparrows,  tree  sparrows,  juncos 


WINDOW  AND    MOVING   FOOD-SHELVES 


FEEDING  THE  WINTER  BIRDS         259 

rows  and  other  birds;  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  experi- 
ence shows  that  where  the  sparrows  congregate  in 
large  flocks,  as  is  their  custom,  the  other  birds  keep 
away.  The  author's  experience  suggests  that  a  mov- 
ing counter  tends  to  keep  the  sparrows  away,  as  they 
will  not  visit  it  so  frequently  as  the  stationary  shelf, 
and  only  when  driven  to  it  by  lack  of  food  else- 
where; on  the  other  hand,  our  native  birds  come  to 
it  readily. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

FOUNTAINS   AND    SHRUBS   FOR   THE   BIRDS 
Fountains 

Essentials  of  fountains.  Birds  use  water  for  two 
purposes,  for  drinking  and  for  bathing.  In  con- 
structing a  fountain  which  will  be  adapted  to  both 
of  these  purposes,  three  essentials  should  be  kept 
in  mind;  first,  the  edge  and  bottom  should  be  of 
roughened  material,  so  that  the  birds  will  not  slip; 
second,  the  water  should  be  shallow,  two  and  a  half 
to  three  inches  is  deep  enough  for  most  birds; 
third,  the  bottom  of  the  fountain  should  slope 
gradually  from  the  edge  out  to  the  center,  so  as  to 
give  a  gradual  change  in  the  depth  of  water. 

Location.  In  deciding  upon  the  location,  the  im- 
portant matter  to  consider  is  protection  from  cats. 
Birds  fly  with  difficulty  when  their  feathers  are  wet, 
and  thus  are  easily  caught.  Fountains  may  be 
raised  on  pedestals  as  a  protection  from  cats,  or  set 
in  the  middle  of  a  lawn  with  no  bushes  near  behind 
which  cats  may  hide;  or  probably  the  best  solution 
is  to  look  after  the  cats  and  place  the  fountain  near 
shrubbery  where  it  will  be  partially  shaded,  and  other 
plants  may  be  put  around  it  for  an  ornamental  set- 
ting. 


FOUNTAINS  AND  SHRUBS  261 

Pans  for  fountains.  Simple  and  effective  bird- 
baths  may  be  made  of  almost  any  shallow  recep- 
tacle, such  as  large  flower-pot  saucers,  pans  of  vari- 
ous kinds,  wash-boiler  covers,  etc.  Sand  and  gravel 
should  be  placed  in  these  so  as  to  give  a  range  in 
depth  of  water  from  a  half -inch  or  less  at  the  edge  to 
about  three  inches  in  the  center;  or  shelving  rocks 
may  be  placed  in  the  basin;  these  would  render  easier 
the  change  of  water,  which  should  be  renewed  each 
day,  and  would  furnish  a  better  standing-place  for 
the  birds  than  the  smooth  edge  of  the  pan.  The 
pan  may  be  fastened  in  a  crotch  of  a  tree,  or  placed 
on  a  post  or  window-sill,  high  enough  to  be  out  of 
the  reach  of  cats.  It  is  preferable  to  place  it  where  it 
will  be  partially  shaded  to  prevent  the  water  from 
becoming  warm. 

Concrete  fountains  on  the  lawn.  One  of  the  most 
satisfactory  types  of  fountain  is  one  made  of  con- 
crete sunk  in  the  ground.  To  make  this,  a  hole 
about  three  feet  across  is  dug  out,  gradually  sloping 
from  the  edge  to  a  depth  of  five  or  six  inches  in  the 
middle.  This  is  plastered  over  with  a  mixture  of 
Portland  cement  and  sand,  in  the  proportion  of  one 
to  four,  thick  enough  to  leave  the  center  about  three 
inches  deep  and  to  slope  gradually  from  there  to  the 
edge.  If  the  water  leaks  through  too  rapidly,  another 
thin  coating  may  be  placed  over  this,  made  by  mix- 
ing about  equal  parts  of  sand  and  cement. 

This  may  be  located  near  shrubbery  where  it  will 


262  BIRD  FRIENDS 

be  partially  shaded,  and  various  plants,  such  as  ferns, 
may  be  grown  around  it.  If  one  has  no  access  to 
running  water,  the  fountains  may  be  cleaned  out 
once  or  twice  a  week  with  a  broom.  This  frequent 
cleaning  will  prevent  mosquitoes  from  breeding.  If 
one  has  a  supply  of  running  water,  this  can  be  let  in 
at  one  side  and  out  at  the  other.  The  overflow  can 
be  disposed  of  by  digging  a  hole  several  feet  deep 
and  filling  with  rocks,  into  which  the  drain-pipe  can 
be  led.  This  may  then  be  covered  with  turf. 

Some  members  of  the  Meriden  Bird  Club  use  a 
fountain  made  of  zinc,  which  contains  a  succession  of 
five  or  six  broad  steps  about  one  half -inch  high  and 
seven  inches  wide,  thus  giving  a  range  of  from  one 
half  to  three  inches  in  depth.  This  may  also  be  made 
with  the  bottom  gradually  sloping  from  one  end  to 
the  other. 

Visitors  at  fountains.  The  number  of  birds  that 
visit  a  fountain  during  a  season  may  be  very  large. 
The  number  that  will  occupy  bird-houses  is  com- 
paratively small,  limited  by  the  natural  nesting- 
habits  of  the  birds;  the  number  that  may  be  at- 
tracted by  winter  feeding  is  larger,  but  still  limited 
to  those  birds  which  have  the  ability  to  withstand 
cold  weather;  the  number  that  may  be  attracted 
by  fountains  is  still  larger,  as  there  is  the  possibility 
of  enticing  birds  from  the  three  great  groups  of 
transient  visitants,  summer  residents,  and  perma- 
nent residents.  One  observer  reports  that  sixty- 


BOB-WHITE    REARED    IN    CAPTIVITY 


CONCRETE   BIRD   FOUNTAIN   ON    THE   AUTHOR'S   LAWN 


FOUNTAINS  AND  SHRUBS  263 

nine  different  species  of  birds  —  many  rare  warblers 
and  migrants  among  them  —  came  in  one  season 
to  drink  from  a  basin  on  a  suburban  lawn.  Another 
observer  reports  seeing  fifteen  kinds  of  birds  around 
his  fountain  in  one  afternoon.  Mr.  E.  H.  Baynes 
writes  that  twenty-two  species  of  birds  have  visited 
his  fountain. 

Trees,  Shrubs,  and  Vines 

Planting  for  the  birds.  For  one  who  owns  a  farm, 
or  a  place  with  fair-sized  grounds,  on  which  he  ex- 
pects to  live  for  a  number  of  years,  perhaps  no 
greater  returns  in  bird  life  will  be  given  than  from  a 
proper  planting  of  trees,  shrubs,  and  vines.  A  tree- 
less and  shrubless  locality  means  a  more  or  less  bird- 
less  locality.  These  are  essentials  to  furnish  nesting- 
sites  and  shelter  for  most  of  our  common  birds. 
These  plantings  may  serve  a  fivefold  purpose  —  to 
furnish  shelter,  nesting-sites,  and  food  for  the  birds, 
to  protect  cultivated  fruit  from  the  birds,  and  to 
beautify  the  home  grounds. 

Planting  for  shelter.  While  all  trees  furnish  some 
shelter  for  the  birds,  the  coniferous  trees  are  espe- 
cially valuable  for  this  purpose  on  account  of  the  re- 
tention of  their  foliage  during  the  cold  months,  which 
furnishes  some  protection  against  the  winter  storms 
and  serves  as  a  favorite  roosting-place  during  the 
long,  cold  nights.  Windbreaks  of  any  kind  of  trees 
may  also  serve  as  a  shelter.  The  smaller  plants,  too, 


264  BIRD  FRIENDS 

such  as  tangles  of  shrubs  and  vines,  furnish  retreats 
for  many  of  the  smaller  birds  when  pursued  by 
hawks;  and  serve  as  a  shelter  for  winter  birds. 

Planting  for  nesting-sites.  While  occasionally 
some  birds  seem  to  show  a  preference  for  some  par- 
ticular kind  of  tree  or  shrub  in  which  to  place  their 
nests,  usually  it  is  a  question  of  the  general  locality, 
with  its  surroundings  and  the  food  and  protection 
given,  which  decides  the  bird  in  its  selection  of  a 
nesting-site.  Hence  those  plants  which  will  best 
serve  the  purpose  of  food  and  shelter  will  also  fur- 
nish nesting-sites.  A  number  of  trees  and  tangles 
of  shrubbery,  thickly  overgrown  with  vines,  furnish 
the  needed  conditions  for  nesting-sites,  provided 
the  other  factors  are  favorable.  If  hedges  are  sub- 
stituted for  fences,  they  may  furnish  nesting-sites 
and  at  the  same  time  serve  as  a  means  of  orna- 
mentation. 

Planting  for  food.  In  selecting  plants  the  ques- 
tion of  food  should  receive  first  consideration.  Some 
of  our  birds  feed  quite  largely  on  fruits  in  their 
season,  and  a  large  number  of  them  select  fruits  as 
a  small  part,  at  least,  of  their  diet. 

The  birds  which  feed  to  a  considerable  extent  on 
wild  fruit  are  arranged  in  the  following  table  in  the 
order  of  the  percentage  which  this  forms  of  their 
whole  food.  These  figures  are  taken  from  the  re- 
ports of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Biological 
Survey: — 


FOUNTAINS  AND  SHRUBS 


265 


Name  of  bird 

Per  cent  that  wild 
fruit  forms  of  total 
food 

Number  of  kinds  of 
fruit  known  to  be 
eaten 

Cedar-bird 

74 

20 

Bob-white 

47 

20 

Robin      

42 

32 

Catbird  

33 

15 

Ruffed  grouse  

28 

23 

Fox  sparrow  

28 

6 

Yellow-bellied  sapsucker...  . 
White-throated  sparrow.  .  .  . 
Cardinal  . 

26 
25 
24 

17 
12 
20 

Flicker     

20 

28 

Rose-breasted  grosbeak  
Bluebird  

19 
18 

12 
23 

A  study  of  the  last  column  shows  the  variety  of 
fruits  eaten  by  the  different  birds. 

In  a  government  publication  is  given  the  follow- 
ing list  of  fruits  and  the  number  of  birds  that  feed 
on  this  fruit  as  determined  by  the  studies  made  by 
the  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey  :  - 


Number 
Fruit  of  birds 

eating 
Elder  ...................  67 

Raspberries  )  «n 

Blackberries  ]  ...........  ° 

Mulberries  ..............  48 

Dogwood  ...............  47 

Sumac  ..................  44 

Wild  cherries  ............  39 

Blueberries  ..............  37 

Wild  grapes  .............  29 

Pokeberries.  .  ,  .26 


Number 
Fruit  of  birds 

eating 
Virginia  creeper  berries 25 

Bayberries 25 

Juniper  berries 25 

June-berries 20 

Holly  berries 19 

Strawberries 16 

Viburnum 16 

Hackberries 15 

Huckleberries 15 


Succession  of  fruits.  The  accompanying  table,  on 
page  266,  is  taken  from  a  publication  of  the  Bureau 


266 


BIRD  FRIENDS 


TABLE  OF  FRUITING-PERIODS 


4 

a 

k 

S. 

A 

•^ 

| 

cL 
3 
^ 

I 

S 

i 

i 

White  mulberry  

Bed-berried  elder  

— 

••• 

^™ 

•• 

t 

z 

~ 

r 

Wild  blackberry  

~ 

• 

Tartarian  honeysuckle  

Black  alder  

Wild  black  cherry  

IBMi 

Barberry  

z 

^^m 

> 

; 

_^~ 

z 

" 

— 

_ 

™ 

z 

I] 

. 
L. 

_ 

"•• 

Coral-berry  

Sumac  

FOUNTAINS  AND  SHRUBS  267 

of  Biological  Survey,  with  a  few  omissions  and  a 
change  in  the  order.  These  plants  are  arranged  in 
the  order  in  which  the  fruit  begins  to  ripen,  so  that 
from  a  study  of  this  table  one  may  select  shrubs 
which  will  furnish  the  birds  with  a  succession  of 
food  from  spring  through  summer  and  fall,  and  even 
through  winter,  as  the  fruit  of  several  shrubs  re- 
mains during  most  of  the  winter  season.  The  period 
of  the  fruiting-season  is  taken  from  the  earliest  and 
latest  dates  recorded  for  New  York  and  New  Eng- 
land, so  that  an  individual  plant  would  not  remain 
in  fruit  during  all  of  this  period. 

Mr.  Frederic  H.  Kennard,  in  Baynes's  "Our  Wild 
Bird  Guests,"  suggests  the  following  species  as 
among  the  best  for  providing  birds  with  a  con- 
tinuous supply  of  food  throughout  the  year :  — 

Trees  Shrubs  Vines 

f  White  mulberry  Shad-bush 

Red  mulberry  Blue  cornel 

Bird  cherry  (Prunus  Tartarian  honey- 
pennsylvanica)  suckle 

•  Red-berried  elder 


f  Flowering  dogwood    Silky  cornel  Frost  grape 

White  thorn  Gray  cornel 

Autumn  •{  Bird  cherry  (Prunus    Arrowwood 
serotind)  Withe-rod 

Common  elder 


( 


Winter  - 


Gray  birch  Barberry  Virginia  creeper 

Cockspur  thorn  Black  alder  Summer  grape 

European  mountain-  Common  privet 

ash  Buckthorn 

Siberian  crab-apple    Sheep-berry 
Black  haw 


268  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Trees  Shrubs  Vines 

Washington  thorn       Japanese  barberry    False  bittersweet 
American  larch  Non-poisonous          Boston  ivy 

European  larch  sumac 

Spring   •{  Flowering  crab-apple  Highbush  cran- 
berry 
Wild  rose 
Rosa  multiflora 

Most  desirable  fruits.  It  is  a  matter  of  quite 
common  observation  that,  on  the  whole,  the  best 
single  tree  to  plant  is  the  mulberry.  It  begins  to 
bear  early  and  its  fruiting  season  is  well  prolonged. 
Other  especially  attractive  fruits  are  the  June- 
berry,  elderberry,  and  wild  cherries.  A  study  of  the 
table  on  page  265  will  suggest  others  of  the  most 
desirable  plants. 

Herbaceous  plants.  There  are  also  some  herba- 
ceous plants  which  can  be  grown  to  attract  birds. 
A  row  of  sunflowers  at  the  back  of  the  garden  is 
often  visited  by  goldfinches  or  others  of  the  finch 
family.  Goldfinches  also  eat  the  seeds  of  the  blue 
cornflower.  The  hummingbird  is  attracted  by  bright 
flowers  with  deep  tubes.  Either  red  or  orange  flowers 
are  preferred.  Some  of  its  favorite  flowers  among 
wild  plants  are  coral  honeysuckle,  painted-cup, 
columbine,  jewel-weed,  Oswego-tea,  and  cardinal- 
flower;  and  among  cultivated  flowers,  columbine, 
scarlet  sal  via,  bee-balm,  nasturtium,  and  gladiolus. 

Planting  for  ornamentation.  The  plants  which 
are  set  out  to  attract  the  birds  may  also  serve  the 


FOUNTAINS  AND  SHRUBS  269 

purpose  of  ornamentation.  Among  our  vines  the 
Virginia  creeper,  which  is  a  favorite  among  the  birds, 
is  very  attractive  because  of  its  decorative  effect. 
Shrubs  may  be  chosen  which  hold  their  berries  dur- 
ing the  winter,  thus  furnishing  the  birds  with  food 
when  it  is  especially  welcome,  and  also  adding  greatly 
to  the  winter  landscape  by  their  bright  and  attrac- 
tive colors.  Some  of  the  shrubs  which  carry  their 
fruit  through  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  winter  are 
holly,  bayberry,  mountain-ash,  black  alder,  green- 
brier,  red  cedar,  sumac,  hackberry,  bittersweet, 
and  burning  bush. 

Reference  has  already  been  made  in  Chapter  X 
to  the  planting  of  shrubs  and  trees  to  protect  cul- 
tivated fruit. 

Calendar  for  attracting  birds 
March- April. 

Continue  to  keep  out  food  as  suggested  for  October-Feb- 
ruary. 

Put  out  nesting-houses. 
Clean  out  the  old  nesting-houses. 

Put  a  little  sawdust  in  boxes  intended  for  woodpeckers. 
Set  out  shrubs  to  attract  birds. 
May. 

Plant  seeds  of  sunflower  and  gourds. 

Below  the  nesting-houses  that  are  occupied  fasten  around 
the  tree  or  post  a  sheet  of  tin  or  zinc  about  eighteen  inches 
wide,  to  protect  the  houses  from  cats. 

Put  out  yarn,  string,  cotton  batting,  and  other   nesting- 
material. 
June. 

Put  out  fountains  for  drinking  and  bathing. 
Keep  cats  shut  up. 


270  BIRD  FRIENDS 

July-September. 

Keep  fountain  clean  and  filled  with  fresh  water. 
October-February. 

Begin  early  to  put  out  food,  suet,  grains,  etc. 

After  storms,  trample  down  the  snow  and  throw  out  grains. 

Examine  feeding-shelves  and  hoppers  after  storm*  and  keep 
them  constantly  supplied  with  food. 

Keep  suet-baskets  full. 

Put  out  nesting-boxes  for  shelter. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

DOMESTICATION   OF  WILD   BIRDS 

Success  achieved.  Considerable  progress  has 
been  made  in  recent  years  in  the  domestication  of 
wild  birds.  Many  experiments  have  been  tried  with 
a  great  variety  of  birds  with  varying  degrees  of  suc- 
cess, but  some  have  been  so  fully  successful  that 
several  species  of  wild  birds  may  be  considered 
partially  domesticated. 

These  experiments  have  been  tried  with  two 
classes  of  birds,  the  water-fowl  and  the  so-called 
gallinaceous  birds,  or  land  game-birds.  Among  the 
first  group  the  birds  which  have  been  successfully 
reared  in  captivity  are  ducks,  geese,  and  swans. 
Among  the  gallinaceous  birds,  the  bob-whites  and 
several  other  quail,  the  ruffed  grouse,  the  prairie 
hen,  the  wild  turkey,  and  pheasants  have  been  suc- 
cessfully reared. 

The  greatest  success  has  been  achieved  in  rear- 
ing the  mallard  duck.  Some  strains  have  become 
thoroughly  domesticated  like  barnyard  fowl.  Other 
ducks  which  have  been  successfully  reared  are  the 
wood  duck,  pintail,  redhead,  gadwall,  widgeon, 
shoveler,  green-winged  and  blue-winged  teals,  black 
duck,  canvasback,  and  lesser  scaup.  The  Canada 
goose  has  also  been  successfully  reared. 


272  BIRD  FRIENDS 

The  rearing  of  wild  birds  has  now  become  quite 
an  industry.  In  a  recent  issue  of  a  paper  devoted 
to  outdoor  life  were  advertisements  of  four  firms 
offering  for  sale  wild  birds  which  had  been  reared 
in  captivity.  Many  people  are  raising  bob-whites, 
pheasants,  and  ducks. 

Nine  States  have  game  farms  on  which  various 
species  of  wild  birds  are  reared. 

The  artificial  rearing  of  birds  settles  the  question 
of  the  preservation  of  any  species  of  bird,  for  as 
soon  as  a  bird  is  reared  artificially  the  danger  of  its 
extermination  is  past.  The  wood  duck  was  form- 
erly classed  as  a  "vanishing  game-bird,"  but  now  it 
is  being  raised  artificially  by  the  thousands  and 
in  some  localities  is  becoming  common. 

A  book  treating  of  the  domestication  of  wild  birds 
has  recently  appeared,  entitled  "The  Propagation 
of  Wild  Birds,"  by  Herbert  K.  Job.  So  far  as  the 
author  knows,  this  is  the  first  manual  of  its  kind  to 
be  published  in  this  country.  Those  who  are  inter- 
ested in  the  exact  methods  by  which  the  various 
species  of  birds  are  reared  will  find  full  directions  in 
this  book.  Mr.  Job  has  also  prepared  two  bulletins  on 
the  subject,  one  on  "Propagation  of  Upland  Game 
Birds,"  and  another  on  "Propagation  of  Wild  Water 
Fowl."  These  are  sold  for  twenty-five  cents  each  by 
the  National  Association  of  Audubon  Societies. 

Methods  of  rearing  wild  birds.  In  some  ways  the 
general  methods  used  in  rearing  all  wild  birds  are 


DOMESTICATION  OF  WILD  BIRDS       273 

similar.  Two  general  methods  are  in  use,  the  arti- 
ficial method  and  the  natural  method.  In  the  arti- 
ficial method  the  birds  are  kept  confined  and  the 
young  reared  in  much  the  same  way  as  poultry. 
In  the  natural  method  the  birds  are  allowed  to  breed 
in  their  natural  way,  but  are  protected  and  helped 
in  every  way  possible.  Each  of  these  methods  has  its 
advantages  and  they  may  be  combined. 

Rearing  the  bob-white.  Among  the  gallinaceous 
birds  the  greatest  success  has  been  achieved  with 
the  bob-white.  The  Massachusetts  Commission  on 
Fisheries  and  Game  raised  several  hundred  in  1914. 
Mr.  A.  C.  Mac  Vicar,  of  New  Jersey,  has  raised  one 
hundred  and  fifty  in  a  season,  the  Connecticut  State 
Farm  at  Madison  about  two  hundred,  Mr.  Harry 
T.  Rogers,  of  New  York,  four  hundred,  and  the  New 
Jersey  Commission  about  five  hundred.  There  are 
a  number  of  men  who  raise  large  numbers  with  as 
much  certainty  as  one  raises  poultry. 

The  following  resume  is  given  in  Mr.  Job's 
"Propagation  of  Wild  Birds":  - 

ResumS  of  plan.  Following  is  a  resume  of  the  general 
plan,  based  upon  my  own  experience  and  observation, 
which  I  suggest  for  the  handling  of  quail  on  an  estate, 
farm,  or  preserve :  — 

1.  Secure  breeding-stock  in  late  fall  or  early  winter 
either  by  purchase  or  by  capture  of  a  small  stock  by 
permission  of  the  authorities. 

2.  Keep  through  the  winter  in  a  wire  enclosure  with 
simple  shelter  from  storms  and  cold  winds. 


274  BIRD  FRIENDS 

'  3.  In  April,  separate  the  pairs,  having  each  pair  in  a 
small  pen  by  itself.  Some  can  remain  in  the  larger  pen 
together,  if  there  are  not  enough  small  pens. 

4.  Hatch  out  the  eggs  and  raise  the  young  with  ban- 
tams.  Do  not  attempt  incubators  and  brooders. 

5.  Put  the  breeders  back  into  the  large  pen  together 
by  the  latter  part  of  July,  unless  they  wish  to  incubate. 

6.  In  late  fall  or  early  winter,  catch  up  what  young  are 
desired.  The  rest  can  be  left  wild  to  breed  naturally,  next 
summer.    Feed  regularly  under  shelters  throughout  the 
winter,  to  hold  them  on  the  land,  as  also  by  planted 
areas  of  grain  left  standing  for  them.    In  severe  winter 
weather  coveys  might  be  shut  up  and  cared  for,  and  let 
go  again. 

Pheasants.  Pheasants  are  very  widely  reared  in 
large  numbers.  The  game  farm  of  West  Virginia 
has  distributed  two  hundred  pheasants,  the  Iowa 
farm  seven  hundred,  the  California  farm  four  thou- 
sand, the  New  Jersey  farm  forty-four  hundred,  the 
Connecticut  farm  six  thousand,  and  the  New  York 
farm  ten  thousand.  Mr.  Donald  Mac  Vicar  hatches 
annually  about  four  thousand. 

Ruffed  grouse.  Dr.  Clifton  Hodge  was  the  first 
man  successfully  to  rear  ruffed  grouse.  Mr.  Her- 
bert K.  Job  has  conducted  a  number  of  successful 
experiments  with  them.  Mr.  Rogers  raised  seventy- 
five  young  grouse  in  one  season.  The  American 
Game  Protective  and  Propagation  Association  has 
raised  them  for  three  successive  generations  on  its 
game  farm  at  South  Carver,  Massachusetts. 

Wild  turkeys.   Wild  turkeys  have  been  success- 


DOMESTICATION  OF  WILD  BIRDS       275 

fully  reared  on  the  preserve  of  the  Woodmount 
Rod  and  Gun  Club  in  Maryland.  One  season  two 
hundred  young  turkeys  were  reared. 

Canada  goose.  The  Canada  goose  is  easily  reared 
in  captivity,  and  is  readily  tamed,  even  more  readily 
than  ducks.  Mr.  J.  W.  Wheaton,  on  Chincoteague 
Island,  Virginia,  has  raised  Canada  geese  for  more 
than  fifty  years.  In  1909  he  had  about  four  hundred 
and  fifty  birds.  About  seventy -five  pairs  breed  and 
he  raises  annually  from  two  hundred  to  three  hun- 
dred young  birds.  Some  of  these  pairs  are  over  fifty 
years  of  age  and  have  come  back  spring  after  spring 
to  nest  for  nearly  half  a  century. 

Ducks.  Wild  ducks  are  now  being  raised  in  large 
numbers.  On  the  Walcott  game  preserve  at  Norfolk, 
Connecticut,  from  fifteen  hundred  to  two  thou- 
sand mallards  are  raised  each  season  for  the  mar- 
ket. The  Game  Breeders'  Association,  of  Sparrow- 
bush,  New  York,  during  the  season  of  1913  gathered 
four  thousand  eggs  from  one  hundred  and  seventy 
mallard  ducks  and  hatched  twenty-five  hundred 
ducklings.  The  Clove  Valley  Rod  and  Gun  Club, 
of  Dutchess  County,  New  York,  during  1913  reared 
and  marketed  about  four  thousand  mallards.  Dur- 
ing the  season  of  1914  Mr.  Wallace  Evans  raised 
more  than  six  thousand  young  wood  ducks. 

Wild  ducks  are  easily  reared.  The  outfit  is  simple 
and  inexpensive,  consisting  of  a  pond  or  brook,  an 
open  shed,  and  a  wire  fence.  The  food  is  easily  pro- 


276  BIRD  FRIENDS 

vided,  and  as  the  birds  are  hardy,  they  are  easily 
kept  in  good  health.  It  is  easy  also  to  rear  the 
young.  And  it  is  even  possible  to  rear  them  in  a  city 
back  yard,  if  one  has  a  cement  basin  and  shrubbery. 
Mr.  F.  Manross  has  a  pair  of  wood  ducks  which  rear 
their  young  each  year  in  a  small  artificial  pond  under 
the  windows  of  his  factory  in  Forestville,  Connecti- 
cut. The  water  is  kept  open  during  the  winter  by 
a  steam  pipe  and  the  birds  remain  here  during  the 
whole  year.  In  another  part  of  his  yard  he  is  rearing 
Canada  geese,  which  were  originally  wild. 

As  another  example  of  what  may  be  done  in  a  city 
back  yard  may  be  mentioned  the  case  of  Dr.  A.  F. 
Warren,  of  Chicopee  Falls,  Massachusetts.  For 
several  years  he  has  kept  several  green- winged  teals 
in  his  small  yard,  where  he  has  made  a  cement  basin 
and  set  out  shrubbery. 

Attracting  wild  ducks.  In  localities  where  ducks 
are  found,  much  can  be  done  to  attract  them  with- 
out artificial  breeding.  Brooks  may  be  dammed  so 
as  to  make  ponds  and  marshes.  A  few  captive  ducks 
kept  on  ponds  may  serve  to  attract  wild  ducks, 
which  may  remain  and  breed.  Mallard  ducks  reared 
in  captivity  make  good  decoys  and  have  been  used 
successfully  in  attracting  wild  ducks  into  ponds, 
even  when  situated  in  city  parks. 

Food  is  another  means  of  enticing  ducks  to  remain. 
Such  grains  as  corn,  wheat,  or  rice  may  be  scattered 
in  shallow  water,  and  ponds  may  be  rendered  still 


DOMESTICATION  OF  WILD  BIRDS       277 

more  attractive  to  ducks  by  planting  water-plants 
that  are  used  by  them  as  food.  The  most  important 
of  these  are  wild  celery,  wild  rice,  and  pondweeds. 
A  study  of  the  stomach-contents  of  a  number  of  in- 
dividuals of  sixteen  species  of  ducks  showed  that 
these  three  plants  composed  one  quarter  of  the  food 
of  these  birds,  divided  as  follows:  pondweeds,  four- 
teen per  cent;  wild  celery,  six  per  cent;  and  wild 
rice,  five  per  cent.  Every  part  of  the  plant  of  wild 
rice  is  eaten  —  stem,  leaves,  flowers,  and  seeds.  The 
seeds  may  be  obtained  of  several  reliable  dealers,  and 
should  be  sown  broadcast  in  the  shallow  water 
around  the  edge  of  the  pond.  Wild  celery  may  be 
propagated  in  a  similar  way  by  seeds,  and  also  by 
winter  buds,  and  by  pieces  of  the  plant  with  a  bit 
of  rootstock  attached. 

Nineteen  plants  that  serve  as  food  for  wild  ducks 
are  given  in  a  bulletin  published  by  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey.  Among  them, 
besides  the  three  mentioned  above,  are:  wapato, 
wild  millet,  musk  grasses,  duckweed,  frogbit,  water 
elm,  marine  eel-grass,  water  cress,  and  coontail. 

Heronry.  Mr.  Mcllhenny,  of  Louisiana,  has  been 
successful  in  starting  a  heronry  near  his  home.  He 
first  secured  some  young  herons  from  nests  and 
reared  them  by  hand.  These  went  away  during  the 
winter,  but  returned  in  the  spring  and  nested  near 
his  house.  Other  herons  joined  them,  and  there  is 
now  a  large  colony,  containing  thousands  of  herons 


278  BIRD  FRIENDS 

of  various  kinds.  Mr.  Herbert  K.  Job,  who  recently 
visited  this  heronry,  writes :  —  w 

Several  days  were  spent  at  Avery  Island,  Louisiana, 
where  I  was  most  kindly  entertained  by  Mr.  E.  A.  Mc- 
Ilhenny,  whose  astounding  .colony,  artificially  built  up, 
of  forty  thousand  snowy  egrets,  herons,  and  other  water 
birds,  attracted  to  his  overflowed  garden,  might  well  be 
considered  "the  eighth  wonder  of  the  world." 


CHAPTER  XXIII 

TEACHING   BIRD-PROTECTION   IN   THE   SCHOOLS 

Purposes  of  bird-study.  In  the  schools  it  is  im- 
portant that  the  teacher  should  have  clearly  in 
mind  the  purposes  of  bird-study  so  that  these  may 
serve  as  a  guide  in  her  teaching.  The  chief  purposes 
of  bird-study  in  the  schools  may  be  briefly  stated 
as  follows:  first,  to  give  the  children  greater  plea- 
sure in  living  through  an  acquaintance  with  the 
birds;  second,  to  teach  them  the  economic  value  of 
birds;  third,  to  teach  them  to  protect  and  to  aid 
the  birds. 

Materials  for  bird-study.  One  of  the  features  of 
nature-study  that  gives  it  special  value  is  the  fact 
that  it  deals  with  things  at  first  hand,  and  the  child 
is  learning  from  a  direct  study  of  the  thing  itself 
instead  of  by  reading  about  it.  Hence  it  is  im- 
portant that  there  should  be  provided  materials 
for  the  child  to  study.  The  best  and  final  thing  is 
for  the  child  to  study  the  living  bird  outdoors.  For 
the  schoolroom  lessons  some  material  is  needed  to 
create  an  interest  which  shall  lead  the  child  to  this 
outdoor  study.  In  most  schools  mounted  birds  can- 
not be  obtained,  and  it  is  questionable  whether  these 
would  be  desirable,  especially  for  young  children. 


280  BIRD  FRIENDS 

As  an  introduction  to  bird-study  sometimes  it  may 
be  possible  to  keep  a  pet  canary  in  the  schoolroom 
for  a  few  days. 

Pictures.  There  is  a  substitute  for  mounted  birds 
that  can  be  used,  which  serves  the  purpose  excep- 
tionally well,  namely,  colored  pictures.  Very  good 
pictures  can  now  be  obtained  from  the  following 
sources :  — 

National  Association  of  Audubon  Societies,  1974 
Broadway,  New  York  City.  About  ninety  pictures 
have  been  published,  to  which  six  are  being  added 
each  year.  The  price  is  two  cents  apiece,  including, 
besides  the  picture,  an  outline  drawing  and  a  four- 
page  pamphlet  descriptive  of  the  bird's  habits. 

G.  P.  Browne  Company,  Beverly,  Massachusetts. 
About  three  hundred  and  fifty  pictures  have  been 
published.  The  price  is  two  cents  each.  These  may 
be  obtained  on  light-weight  mounts  for  four  cents 
each. 

Liberty  Bell  Bird  Club,  "Farm  Journal,"  Phila- 
delphia. Twenty  pictures  have  been  published  and 
are  sold  at  two  cents  each. 

Massachusetts  Audubon  Society,  66  Newbury 
Street,  Boston.  This  Society  sells  pictures  mounted 
as  charts.  There  are  three  charts  known  as  the 
Audubon  Bird  Charts,  twenty-seven  by  forty-two 
inches,  arranged  so  that  they  can  be  hung  in  the 
schoolroom.  Charts  numbers  1  and  2  each  contain 
twenty-six  common  birds,  and  Chart  number  3, 


BIRD-PROTECTION  IN  THE  SCHOOLS    281 

twenty  winter  birds.  The  price  of  each  chart  is 
$1.50. 

Handwork.  For  young  children  it  is  important 
that  a  large  amount  of  handwork  should  be  pro- 
vided, as  children  acquire  knowledge  faster  by  this 
means.  Colored  pictures  furnish  material  for  this 
kind  of  work.  The  children  are  given  uncolored 
outlines  and,  with  the  colored  pictures  before  them, 
color  in  the  outline,  using  either  colored  crayons  or 
water-colors.  The  outlines  may  be  obtained  in  three 
ways:  First,  they  may  be  bought.  The  National 
Association  of  Audubon  Societies  sells  an  outline  with 
each  picture,  but  does  not  sell  the  outlines  sepa- 
rately. Separate  outlines  of  thirty  common  birds 
may  be  bought  for  one  cent  each  of  the  Comstock 
Publishing  Company,  Ithaca,  New  York.  Second, 
the  teacher,  by  means  of  a  mimeograph  or  other 
device,  may  make  enough  outlines  to  supply  the 
class.  Third,  the  children  may  make  the  outlines 
themselves.  The  older  children  may  make  free-hand 
drawings  of  the  outline  from  the  picture. 

The  younger  children  may  trace  the  outlines. 
For  this  purpose  two  grades  of  paper  are  needed,  the 
ordinary  drawing-paper  on  which  the  final  outline 
is  to  be  colored,  and  some  paper  thin  enough  for 
tracing:  thin  typewriting  paper  will  do.  The  thin 
paper  is  held  over  the  picture  and  the  outline  of 
the  bird  traced.  When  this  is  finished,  it  is  turned 
over  and  placed  on  the  ordinary  drawing-paper  with 


282  BIRD  FRIENDS 

the  outline  next  to  it.  The  child  takes  his  pencil  and 
marks  back  and  forth  a  number  of  times  across  the 
paper  just  over  the  outline  already  drawn.  This 
causes  enough  of  the  pencil  mark  to  be  rubbed  off  to 
reproduce  the  outline  on  the  second  paper.  The 
child  may  go  over  this  outline  with  a  pencil  to  make 
it  clear,  and  then  color  it. 

Free-hand  outlines  of  birds  may  be  cut  from 
paper  or  cardboard  and  then  colored  on  both  sides 
with  crayons.  These  may  be  suspended  by  means 
of  thread  to  represent  flying  birds.  Outlines  may 
also  be  cut  from  thin  pieces  of  board  with  a  knife  or 
fret  saw,  and  then  the  two  sides  painted.  These  may 
be  fastened  to  sticks  to  make  flower-sticks  to  put  in 
flower-pots. 

The  purpose  of  this  work  is  to  enable  the  children 
to  identify  the  birds  in  the  field  more  easily,  be- 
cause they  have  noted  the  colors  and  their  location, 
and  they  should  be  encouraged  to  look  for  these 
birds.  If  this  handwork  stops  in  the  schoolroom 
without  leading  to  the  study  of  birds  outdoors,  it 
may  be  questioned  whether  it  is  worth  while. 

Bird  games.  The  game  element  may  profitably 
be  introduced  into  bird-study,  especially  with  young 
children.  Following  are  some  games  which  the  au- 
thor has  seen  used  that  help  the  child  in  describing 
and  identifying  the  birds :  — 

Games  with  colored  pictures.  Game  number  1. 
The  teacher  shows  the  pictures  one  at  a  time  to  the 


BIRD-PROTECTION  IN  THE  SCHOOLS    283 

children,  keeping  the  name  covered.  The  child  who 
first  correctly  names  the  bird  takes  the  picture.  The 
child  who  has  the  most  pictures  at  the  end  of  the 
game  wins. 

Game  number  2.  This  may  be  used  with  older 
children.  A  large  number  of  pictures  are  hung 
around  the  room  and  numbered,  the  names  being 
covered.  Each  child  writes  the  list  of  numbers  on 
a  piece  of  paper  and  opposite  the  number  the  name 
of  the  bird.  The  child  who  names  the  most  wins. 

Game  number  3.  The  teacher  pins  the  picture  of 
some  bird  on  a  child's  back  and  shows  the  picture 
to  the  class.  The  child  stands  before  the  class  and 
asks  questions  of  any  one  he  wishes  about  the  bird, 
till  he  guesses  it  correctly.  He  then  names  some  one 
else  to  take  his  place. 

Games  without  pictures.  Game  number  ^.  A 
child  stands  before  the  class  and  describes  some 
bird  which  he  has  in  mind.  The  children  try  to 
guess  the  bird  from  the  description.  The  child  who 
first  guesses  it  correctly  then  begins  the  description 
of  another  bird. 

Game  number  5.  This  is  a  slight  modification  of  the 
previous  game.  A  child  stands  before  the  class  and 
has  some  particular  bird  in  mind.  The  children  take 
turns  in  asking  questions  about  the  bird,  its  color, 
size,  etc.,  till  some  one  guesses  the  bird.  This  child 
then  takes  his  turn  in  answering  questions  about 
some  other  bird. 


284 


BIRD  FRIENDS 


Dramatization.  Children  enjoy  dramatization 
and  learn  much  thereby.  Some  simple  bird  play 
could  be  easily  arranged  and  the  parts  taken  by  the 
children.  The  Liberty  Bell  Bird  Club  has  arranged 
three  plays:  "The  Workers,"  "The  Birds'  Return," 
and  "The  Birds'  House-Hunting,"  which  may  be 
obtained  of  the  "  Farm  Journal,"  Philadelphia,  for 
three  two-cent  stamps  each.  Probably  Percy  Mac- 
Kaye's  "Sanctuary  "  could  be  adapted  for  grammar 
grades. 

Bird  calendar.  A  spring  bird  calendar  is  a  source 
of  never-failing  interest,  beginning  even  with  the 
very  youngest  children  and  extending  up  through 
the  grades.  A  calendar  may  best  be  kept  on  a  large 
piece  of  heavy  paper  or  cardboard.  At  the  top 
should  be  some  artistic  decoration  appropriate  to 
the  subject.  For  the  young  children  the  reports  may 
be  arranged  in  four  columns :  — 


Name  of  bird 

Name  of  child 
first  reporting 

Date  first  seen 

Where  seen 

For  the  older  children  the  following  columns  may 
be  added : — 


Date  when  abundant 

Date  when  nesting 

Remarks 

The  competitive  element  suggested  in  having  the 
child's  name  appear  on  the  calendar  stimulates  the 
children  and  arouses  much  interest.  Several  pre- 


BLACK  MAR27IMILDRED 

BIRD  . 

WREN    flPR.iS  5UMNER 
BLUE-  RPR03  JAMES 

BIRO 
BLUE  •  A  PR!?.  MERCEDES 

JAY 

CR05B£flK|MPRt3Q  fllLORED 
MEADOW 


NEAR  PARK. 
NEAR  HOME. 

NEAR  HOME 
NEAR  HOME 

NEftR  HOME. 

NEAR5VYAMP 
IN  FIELD 

NEAR-HOME 


SCHOOL    BIRD   CALENDAR 
Kept  by  a  third  grade 


FEEDING-STATION  FOR  BIRDS  IN  YARD  OF  TRAINING-SCHOOL 
MANKATO  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL,  MINNESOTA 


BIRD-PROTECTION  IN  THE  SCHOOLS    285 

cautions  will  need  to  be  observed  by  the  teacher. 
Children  will  often  report  very  positively  the  appear- 
ance of  a  bird  a  month  before  it  is  due  to  arrive.  If 
the  teacher  has  access  to  a  local  calendar  kept  by 
some  bird-student,  it  will  help  her  in  knowing  when 
to  expect  certain  birds.  The  migration  dates  for 
several  localities  in  the  eastern  United  States  are 
given  in  Chapman's  "Handbook  of  Birds."  If  the 
children  report  birds  several  weeks  ahead  of  the 
dates  given  on  some  reliable  migration  record,  prob- 
ably they  have  made  a  mistake  and  they  should 
be  told  so  by  the  teacher. 

After  it  is  probable  that  the  bird  has  arrived,  it 
must  be  understood  by  the  class  that  no  bird's  name 
is  to  go  down  on  the  calendar  till  the  child  has  given 
such  a  good  description  of  the  bird  that  there  is  no 
doubt  about  its  being  seen.  In  case  of  doubt  the 
name  should  not  be  put  down. 

One  important  line  of  work  is  to  take  up  in  turn 
in  the  various  grades  different  species  of  birds  so  as 
to  acquaint  the  child  each  year  with  a  few  new  birds. 
For  the  younger  children  the  most  common  and 
conspicuous  birds  should  be  studied,  with  emphasis 
placed  on  identification.  In  later  grades  other  birds 
may  be  taken  up  and  adaptations  and  economic  value 
studied  in  addition  to  identification.  The  colored 
plates  may  be  used  to  show  the  colors  and  their 
location  as  an  aid  to  naming  the  birds  when  seen 
outdoors. 


286  BIRD  FRIENDS 

The  children  should  be  encouraged  to  look  for 
the  birds,  and  some  questions  may  be  written  on  the 
board  that  they  may  answer  from  a  study  of  the 
bird.  The  children  should  be  asked  to  report  to  the 
class  the  results  of  their  observations,  and  frequent 
opportunities  should  be  given  for  these  reports.  At 
first  not  all  the  children  will  make  these  studies  and 
reports,  but  if  the  teacher  encourages  and  expects 
this  and  gives  opportunities  for  reports,  the  number 
of  children  who  do  this  can  be  gradually  increased. 

As  a  means  for  reviewing  and  summarizing  the 
birds  from  the  standpoint  of  identification,  the 
tables  given  later  on  pages  312  and  313  may  be  used. 

The  child's  activities.  One  of  the  most  effective 
phases  of  nature-study  is  that  which  calls  into  play 
the  manual  activities  of  the  child  in  providing  op- 
portunities himself  for  making  a  study  of  the  life 
around  him.  This  principle  of  utilizing  the  child's 
activities  is  one  that  is  well  understood  and  applied 
in  the  kindergarten,  but  too  little  employed  in  later 
years.  It  will  prove  a  most  effective  instrument  to  be 
used  with  the  children  when  circumstances  allow. 
Bird-study  is  specially  well  adapted  to  making  use 
of  these  activities  in  building  nesting-houses,  in 
feeding  the  winter  birds,  and  in  providing  fountains. 
The  very  fact  that  the  child  is  doing  something 
for  the  birds  is  a  means  of  developing  that  helpful 
sympathy  with  nature  which  may  prove  such  an 
important  factor  in  all  his  subsequent  life.  And, 


BIRD-PROTECTION  IN  THE  SCHOOLS    287 

furthermore,  an  excellent  opportunity  is  offered  for 
watching  the  birds  that  may  come  in  response  to 
the  attractions  offered.  These  observations  will  be 
carried  on  with  much  greater  ardor  and  thorough- 
ness because  the  child  has  himself  helped  to  furnish 
the  conditions  which  make  his  observations  possible. 

Nesting-houses.  Perhaps  there  is  no  one  line  of 
work  that  interests  the  children  so  much  as  the 
making  of  bird-houses,  especially  in  the  primary  and 
intermediate  grades.  Even  very  young  children  are 
interested,  and  when  they  are  too  small  to  make  the 
houses  themselves,  some  one  of  the  family  at  home 
may  help  them.  The  houses  can  be  built  at  home 
or  in  the  manual-training  department.  Children 
may  be  asked  to  bring  materials,  and  then  some 
one  may  help  them  in  the  manual-training  shops. 
Many  children  may  be  interested  to  the  point  where 
they  will  make  houses  at  home.  As  an  added  in- 
centive the  children  may  be  asked  to  bring  their 
houses  to  school  on  a  certain  day,  so  that  a  picture 
of  the  children  with  their  houses  may  be  taken. 

The  matter  may  be  brought  to  the  attention  of 
the  children  in  the  early  spring.  The  subject  may  be 
introduced  by  a  general  discussion  of  the  nesting- 
habits  of  those  birds  that  nest  in  hollow  trees  or  other 
cavities.  The  children  should  be  asked  to  search 
the  neighborhood  to  ascertain  to  what  extent  these 
natural  nesting-sites  may  be  found.  In  many  locali- 
ties these  have  been  entirely  cleared  away  in  the 


288  BIRD  FRIENDS 

development  of  the  land  for  real-estate  purposes, 
and  hence  there  may  be  emphasized  the  necessity 
of  building  nesting-houses  if  we  would  keep  these 
birds  around  our  homes.  The  problems  which  arise 
in  connection  with  the  construction  and  location  of 
bird-houses  should  be  talked  over  with  the  children 
and  the  important  precautions  to  be  observed  ex- 
plained to  them.  The  really  essential  features  hav- 
ing been  made  clear,  the  children  should  be  allowed 
to  use  their  ingenuity  and  individuality  about  ar- 
ranging details. 

Difficulties.  The  children  should  understand  the 
difficulties  to  be  met,  so  as  to  avoid  undue  disap- 
pointment, and  should  be  prepared  to  overcome 
them  as  far  as  possible.  The  greatest  obstacle  of  all 
is  the  English  sparrow.  Some  devices  which  may  as- 
sist in  keeping  this  bird  away  have  been  discussed 
in  Chapter  XIX,  the  most  effective  one  of  which  is 
to  make  the  hole  so  small  that  the  sparrows  cannot 
enter,  but  large  enough  for  the  wren  and  chickadee. 
With  houses  for  bluebirds  and  tree  swallows,  prob- 
ably the  most  effective  thing  which  the  children  can 
do  is  to  make  the  houses  so  that  the  tops  can  be 
easily  lifted,  and  then  to  remove  the  sparrows'  eggs 
once  a  week  or  as  fast  as  they  are  laid.  This  often 
causes  the  sparrows  to  leave  the  nesting-house.  If 
nothing  else  can  be  done  the  entrance  can  be  cov- 
ered or  the  house  taken  down,  as  soon  as  it  is  evi- 
dent that  no  other  bird  is  going  to  use  the  house, 


BIRD-PROTECTION  IN  THE  SCHOOLS    289 

thus  preventing  the  sparrows  from  rearing  their 
young.  Of  course  killing  the  sparrow  cannot  be 
recommended  to  the  children.  Whatever  is  done 
along  this  line  must  be  left  to  adults. 

If  the  school-building  is  favorably  situated, 
houses  may  be  put  up  in  the  school-yard.  If  these 
are  occupied,  opportunity  will  be  given  the  school 
for  bird-study  at  close  range.  The  children  may  be 
sufficiently  interested  to  raise  money  for  a  martin- 
house  to  be  erected  in  the  school-yard,  as  was  done 
by  the  children  in  the  Training-School  of  the  Man- 
kato  State  Normal  School,  Minnesota. 

It  would  be  well  worth  while  to  see  if  the  park 
boards  would  not  cooperate  -with  the  schools,  so 
that  the  children  might  make  bird-houses  and 
place  them  in  the  parks.  Such  a  plan  was  carried 
out  in  Jackson  and  Washington  Parks,  Chicago, 
the  children  making  several  hundred  wren-  and 
bluebird-houses.  During  one  season  the  children  of 
Portland,  Oregon,  built  eight  thousand  bird-houses 
and  placed  them  in  the  various  parks  and  about 
different  sections  of  the  city.  Most  of  them  were 
built  by  the  pupils  of  the  manual-training  depart- 
ments of  the  different  schools.  In  many  localities 
prizes  have  been  offered  for  the  best  bird-houses. 
As  a  result  thousands  of  bird-houses  have  been 
built  by  children.  These  houses  are  often  kept  on 
exhibition  for  awhile,  and  many  of  them  are  then 
sold  by  the  children  to  the  people  of  the  community. 


290  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Feeding  the  winter  birds.  The  introductory  work 
to  feeding  the  winter  birds  should  be  done  in  the 
late  fall.  A  talk  on  the  food  of  birds  may  be 
given,  so  as  to  bring  out  the  two  classes  of  foods, 
animal  and  vegetable.  The  kinds  of  food  to  put 
out  and  the  methods  of  putting  it  out  may  be  dis- 
cussed. The  necessity  of  providing  a  constant  supply 
of  food  should  be  emphasized,  and  also  of  seeing  that 
there  is  a  good  supply  immediately  after  a  snow- 
storm. The  children  may  occasionally  be  reminded 
of  the  feeding  so  that  they  will  not  neglect  it  too 
long.  The  possibility  of  taming  the  birds  to  feed 
from  the  hand  should  be  brought  to  the  children's 
attention.  The  construction  of  winter-feeding  de- 
vices, as  suggested  in  Chapter  XX,  may  be  made 
a  part  of  the  manual-training  work. 

And  while  the  children  are  being  encouraged  to 
feed  the  birds  at  home,  a  lunch-counter  may  be 
provided  in  the  school-yard  if  the  conditions  will 
allow  it.  Committees  may  be  appointed  among  the 
children  to  see  that  the  counter  is  provided  with 
food. 

While  the  two  methods  of  attracting  birds  al- 
ready mentioned  are  the  ones  best  adapted  for  school 
use,  something  may  also  be  done  in  the  line  of  en- 
couraging the  children  to  provide  fountains.  The 
planting  of  shrubs  requires  so  long  before  the  re- 
turns come  in  that  this  method  of  attracting  birds 
will  not  appeal  to  children,  but  they  may  be  en- 


BIRD-PROTECTION  IN  THE  SCHOOLS    291 

couraged  to  plant  seeds  of  annuals,  such  as  hemp, 
millet,  and  sunflower.  In  Carrick,  Pennsylvania, 
a  public-spirited  man  has  been  giving  small  mul- 
berry and  cherry  trees  to  those  children  who  would 
agree  to  plant  them  and  take  care  of  them.  Previous 
to  1912,  fifteen  hundred  trees  had  been  given  to 
the  children. 

Bird  fountain  in  a  school-yard.  In  some  cases 
it  may  be  practicable  to  construct  a  bird  fountain 
in  the  school-yard.  Such  a  fountain  was  built  in 
a  yard  in  Worcester,  Massachusetts.  Connections 
were  made  so  that  running  water  dripped  into  the 
basin  and  a  drain  carried  off  the  surplus  water.  Wild 
flowers  were  planted  in  the  crevices  of  the  fountain 
and  at  its  base,  and  clumps  of  shrubbery  were  planted 
near  so  that  their  fruit  might  furnish  food  for  the 
birds.  The  first  year  the  fountain  was  visited  by 
twenty -five  species  of  birds.  Another  similar  foun- 
tain was  built  at  Passaic,  New  Jersey. 

Field  trips.  There  is  but  one  way  to  know  the 
birds;  that  is,  to  study  them  in  the  field.  In  the 
schoolroom  the  children  may  be  prepared  for  field 
studies  and  may  learn  about  the  value  of  the  birds 
and  how  to  protect  them,  but  without  a  knowledge 
of  the  birds  themselves  enthusiasm  will  be  lacking. 

The  ordinary  class  of  thirty  to  forty  children  is  too 
large  to  attempt  a  field  trip  as  a  body,  but  fre- 
quently some  arrangement  may  be  made  with  the 
principal  by  which  half  of  the  class  may  be  taken 


BIRD  FRIENDS 

at  one  time.  Sometimes  walks  may  be  taken  with 
a  few  children  who  are  especially  interested. 

Both  teacher  and  children  should  start  out  with 
a  very  definite  purpose  in  mind.  The  teacher  should 
prepare  and  plan  for  the  trip  very  carefully.  One 
purpose  may  be  to  see  how  many  kinds  of  birds 
can  be  identified  and  to  make  a  list  of  them.  Another 
purpose  may  be  to  make  a  special  study  of  one  or 
two  kinds  of  birds,  noting  the  size,  general  colors, 
song,  nesting-habits,  and  methods  of  locomotion. 

Whether  field  trips  with  the  children  are  taken  or 
not,  the  teacher  should  constantly  encourage  the 
children,  when  by  themselves  as  they  pass  to  and 
from  school  and  when  at  home,  to  study  the  birds 
and  report  their  observations  to  the  class.  One  of 
the  chief  purposes  of  the  field  trips  taken  by  the 
teacher  with  the  children  is  to  stimulate  them  to 
observe  birds  when  by  themselves. 

Bird  clubs.  Much  enthusiasm  can  be  aroused  by 
the  organization  of  bird  clubs.  A  local  bird  club 
can  be  formed  anywhere,  but  more  interest  will  be 
aroused  if  this  is  formed  in  connection  with  some 
large  organization.  There  are  at  least  two  ways  in 
which  this  may  be  done.  One  is  through  the  Na- 
tional Association  of  Audubon  Societies,  as  explained 
in  Chapter  XVI.  Each  child  who  wishes  to  join  pays 
ten  cents.  The  names  are  sent  by  the  teacher  to 
New  York  City  to  the  Association,  and  each  child 
receives  in  return  ten  colored  bird  pictures  and  an 


SCHOOL    BIRD   FOUNTAIN,    PASSAIC,  N.J. 


JUNIOR    AUDUBON    CLASS    AT    TRAINING-SCHOOL 
MANKATO,  MINN. 


BIRD-PROTECTION  IN  THE  SCHOOLS    293 

Audubon  button,  which  has  on  it  a  picture  of  the 
robin  and  the  words  "Audubon  Society";  and  if 
there  are  ten  or  more  members,  the  teacher  receives 
"Bird-Lore"  for  one  year. 

Another  means  is  through  the  Liberty  Bell  Bird 
Club  of  the  "Farm  Journal,"  Philadelphia,  to  which 
reference  has  been  made  in  Chapter  XX.  The 
pledge  there  printed  is  written  at  the  top  of  a  sheet 
of  paper  and  the  children  who  wish  to  join  write 
their  names  under  this  pledge.  This  list  is  sent  to 
the  "Farm  Journal"  at  Philadelphia,  and  each  child 
in  return  receives  a  little  pamphlet,  entitled  "Guide 
of  the  Liberty  Bell  Bird  Club";  and  also  a  bird 
button,  which  has  on  it  a  picture  of  a  swallow  and 
of  the  Liberty  Bell,  and  printed  across  it  the  motto 
"Protect  Our  Feathered  Friends"  and  around  the 
circumference  the  name  "The  Liberty  Bell  Bird 
Club." 

The  advantage  of  the  first  club  is  that  each  child 
receives  pictures  which  may  be  used  in  connection 
with  the  meetings  of  the  club.  The  advantage  of  the 
second  club  is  that  no  money  is  required.  The 
teacher  can  select  whichever  seems  best  suited  to  the 
locality  where  she  is  teaching.  Except  with  the  very 
young  children,  it  is  well  to  elect  officers  and  to  allow 
the  children  to  assume  the  chief  responsibility  for  the 
work  of  the  club  under  the  supervision  of  the  teacher. 

There  is  a  great  variety  of  things  that  may  be 
done  at  the  meetings  of  the  club.  If  the  colored 


294  BIRD  FRIENDS 

plates  are  used,  the  children  may  color  some  of  the 
outlines.  Any  one  of  these  birds  may  be  taken  as 
the  topic  of  the  meeting,  and  the  pamphlet  and  other 
references  studied  in  preparation,  different  children 
being  assigned  topics  to  look  up.  About  a  week  be- 
fore the  meeting,  the  bird  to  be  studied  should  be  an- 
nounced, so  that  the  children  may  be  watching  the 
birds  outdoors  and  report  what  they  have  seen.  A 
meeting  may  be  held  to  discuss  the  making  of  bird- 
houses,  and  at  another  meeting  these  may  be  brought 
together  and  compared.  A  number  of  field  trips 
should  be  taken  to  study  the  birds  outdoors.  All  of 
the  above  can  best  be  done  in  the  spring.  In  the 
fall  nests  may  be  collected  and  studied.  In  the  winter 
the  subject  of  winter  feeding  may  be  taken  up. 

From  a  number  of  letters  published  in  "Bird- 
Lore"  explaining  about  the  work  of  the  clubs,  the 
following  list  is  taken  of  the  things  which  were 
done  by  the  various  clubs :  — 

Prizes  offered  for  the  following:  — 

Best  bird-houses. 

Greatest  number  of  bird-houses  for  different  birds. 

Longest  list  of  birds  identified  from  pictures. 

Best  bird  records. 

Best  composition  showing  intimate  knowledge  of 
birds. 

Best  colored  drawing  of  some  bird. 

Prize  to  the  school   or  room   having   the   largest 

number  of  clippings  in  their  bird-clipping  book. 
Making  bird-houses,  feeding  devices,  and  fountains  for 

the  home  yard. 


BIRD-PROTECTION  IN  THE  SCHOOLS    295 

Building  bird-houses  to  put  up  in  school-yard. 

Exhibition  of  bird-houses  open  to  the  public. 

Members  of  clubs  give  talks  to  children  in  other  build- 
ings. 

Talks  given  to  club  by  various  members  about  some 
birds  shown  by  the  radiopticon. 

Demonstration  of  tying  suet  to  branches  of  trees. 

Debates  on  such  questions  as,  "Should  the  crow  be 
protected?" 

Providing  Christmas  tree  for  the  birds. 

Field  trips. 

Publication  of  a  paper  containing  articles  about  birds. 

Playing  bird  games. 

Spring  migration  records  of  birds  kept  by  club. 

Attending  illustrated  lecture  given  by  some  one  who 
has  lantern  slides. 

The  following  are  the  suggestions  for  meetings  as 
given  in  the  "  Guide  of  the  Liberty  Bell  Bird  Club  " : 

First :  Repeat  in  concert  the  pledge  of  the  Liberty  Bell 
Bird  Club. 

Second:  Members  report  all  the  different  varieties  of 
birds  seen  since  the  last  meeting.  This  report  to  be  writ- 
ten, read,  and  given  to  the  teacher  or  director  and  to  be 
filed. 

Third :  Recitation  or  reading  —  a  bird  poem  or  a  bird 
story.  Many  good  ones  appear  from  time  to  time  in  the 
"Farm  Journal's "  Bird  Club  column  and  elsewhere  in 
the  paper. 

Fourth:  Members  report  what  they  have  observed  and 
all  special  bird  work  done  by  them. 

Fifth:  Composition  on  one  of  the  articles  in  the  Bird 
Club  page  of  the  "Farm  Journal."  Subject  to  be  given 
by  the  teacher  or  director. 

Sixth:  Question  box. 


296  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Seventh:  Work  outlined  by  teacher  or  director  for  the 
following  week. 

Eighth:  Adjournment. 

In  many  cases  enough  interest  is  aroused  so  that 
the  members  of  the  club  meet  during  the  summer 
vacation  at  the  homes  of  the  members. 

Bird  Day.  Bird  Day  is  observed  often  in  connec- 
tion with  Arbor  Day.  Bird  Day  is  now  officially 
recognized  in  nine  States.  In  observing  this  day 
one  special  feature  to  be  emphasized  is  doing  some- 
thing for  the  birds,  such  as  putting  up  houses  at 
home  or  in  the  school-yard.  The  program  should 
not  be  so  formal  as  to  obliterate  this  important  fea- 
ture. The  following  are  suggestions  for  a  few  gen- 
eral lines  of  work  that  may  be  carried  on :  — 

1.  Reading  of  proclamation. 

2.  Talk  by  some  one  outside  of  the  schools. 

3.  Talk  by  teacher. 

4.  Original  essays  by  children. 

5.  Reports  on  outdoor  observations. 

6.  Recitations  and  readings. 

7.  Dramatic  presentation. 

8.  Songs. 

9.  Putting  up  bird-houses  and  planting  shrubs  in  school- 
yard to  attract  birds. 

Arbor  and  Bird  Day  Annuals  are  published  in 
some  States,  which  give  many  helpful  suggestions. 

Correlation  with  other  subjects.  Bird-study  may 
do  much  to  add  to  other  lines  of  school  work  and 
may  also  itself  be  made  more  interesting  by  proper 


BIRD-PROTECTION  IN  THE  SCHOOLS    297 


correlation.  Many  opportunities  present  them- 
selves in  connection  with  several  subjects,  especially 
with  art  and  literature. 

The  following  chart  suggests  briefly  something  of 
what  may  be  done  along  this  line:  — 


Literature 

Art 

Manual 
training 

Language 

Geog- 
raphy 

Civics 

Arith- 
metic 

Read  lit- 

Color 

Make  nest- 

Reports 

Migra- 

Bird 

Problems 

erature 

outlines 

ing- 

on  out- 

tion. 

club 

on  the 

about 

of  birds. 

houses, 

door 

Seasonal 

to 

number 

the 

Make 

feederies, 

obser- 

change 

pro- 

of in- 

birds 

artis- 

and foun- 

va- 

in bird 

tect 

sects 

studied. 

tic 

tains. 

tions. 

life. 

birds. 

eaten 

bird 

by 

calen- 

young 

dar. 

birds. 

Birds  and  literature.  A  study  of  good  literature 
should  form  an  important  part  of  the  work  with  birds. 
Below  is  a  list  of  books  containing  bird  poems:  — 

For  Primary  Grades 

Ingpen,  One  Thousand  Poems  for  Children.  G.  W.  Jacobs  &  Co., 

Philadelphia.    $1.25. 
McMurry  and  Cook,  Songs  of  Tree-Top  and  Meadow.    Public 

School  Publishing  Co.,  Bloomington,  111.   $.40. 
Wiggin  and  Smith,  The  Posy  Ring.    Doubleday,  Page  &  Co., 

Garden  City,  N.Y.   $1.25. 

For  Intermediate  Grades 

Bailey  and  Lewis,  For  the  Children's  Hour.  Milton  Bradley  Co., 

Springfield,  Mass.  $1.50. 
Knowlton,  Nature  Songs  for  Children.  Milton  Bradley  Co., 

Springfield,  Mass.  $1.00. 
Lovejoy,  Nature  in  Verse.  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  Boston.  $.60. 


298  BIRD  FRIENDS 

For  Grammar  Grades 

Burroughs,  Songs  of  Nature.   Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  Garden 

City,  N.Y.   $1.35. 
Lovejoy,  Poetry  of  the  Seasons.    Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  Boston. 

$.60. 
Williams,  Through  the  Year  with  Birds  and  Poets.  Lothrop,  Lee  & 

Shepard  Co.,  Boston.  $1.00. 

Below  are  suggested  a  few  books  for  the  children's 
library,  which  are  written  in  a  style  that  children 
can  understand :  — 

Burroughs,  Bird  Stories  from  Burroughs.  Houghton  Mifflin  Co., 

Boston.    $.60. 

Gould,  Mother  Nature's  Children.  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston.  $.60. 
Johonnot,  Neighbors  with  Wings  and  Fins.    American  Book 

Co.,  New  York.  $.40. 

Miller,  First  Book  of  Birds.  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  Boston.  $.60. 
Miller,  Second  Book  of  Birds.   Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  Boston. 

$1.00. 

Stickney  and  Hoffmann,  Bird  World.  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston.  $.60. 
Walker,  Our  Birds  and  their  Nestlings.    American  Book  Co., 

New  York.  $.60. 
Wright,  Gray  Lady  and  the  Birds.  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York. 

$1.00  (school  edition). 

Arithmetic  and  bird-study.  Some  problems  in 
arithmetic  relating  to  the  number  of  insects  eaten 
by  birds,  the  numbers  of  birds,  and  other  topics  may 
be  given  the  children.  A  few  are  here  suggested:  — 

A.  Problems  on  the  number  of  insects  eaten  by  nestlings. 

1.  A  pair  of  wrens  were  observed  to  feed  their  young  17  times 
in  an  hour.  The  parents  fed  their  young  from  5  A.M.  till  8  P.M., 
and  the  young  remained  in  the  nest  15  days.   Assuming  that 
one  insect  was  brought  at  each  visit,  how  many  insects  were 
destroyed  by  this  brood  of  wrens? 

2.  During  an  outbreak  of  locusts  in  Nebraska  in  1874,  a  man 


BIRD-PROTECTION  IN  THE  SCHOOLS    299 

saw  a  long-billed  marsh  wren  carry  30  locusts  to  her  young  in 
an  hour.  At  this  rate  how  many  locusts  did  the  brood  consume 
in  a  day  of  12  hours?  The  area  of  Nebraska  is  about  77,000 
square  miles.  If  we  assume  that  there  were  20  broods  of  wrens 
to  each  square  mile,  how  many  locusts  did  the  wrens  in  Ne- 
braska destroy  in  one  day? 

3.  Many  birds  on  the  average  feed  their  young  about  200 
times  a  day,  and  the  young  stay  in  the  nest  about  two  weeks. 
After  the  leaves  have  fallen,  count  the  number  of  nests  in  a  cer- 
tain area  and  then  estimate  the  number  of  insects  that  have  been 
destroyed  by  the  birds  reared  in  these  nests,  assuming  one  insect 
brought  at  each  feeding. 

4.  A  40-acre  farm  in  Rantoul,  Kansas,  had  157  pairs  of  birds 
nesting  on  it  in  1914.  Assuming  that  the  birds  averaged  to  feed 
their  young  200  times  a  day,  and  that  the  young  remained  in  the 
nest  14  days,  how  many  insects  per  acre  were  destroyed  by  these 
birds?  How  many  insects  were  destroyed  on  the  whole  farm? 

B.  Problems  on  amount  of  food  eaten  by  adult  birds. 

1.  A  study  made  of  owls  during  the  winter  months  showed 
that  they  destroyed  2  mice  a  day.    It  has  been  estimated  that 
each  mouse  does  damage  to  the  extent  of  2  cents  each  year. 
How  much  is  an  owl  worth  a  year? 

2.  A  study  made  by  the  Biological  Survey  of  the  red-shoul- 
dered hawk  showed  that  out  of  214  birds,  3  had  eaten  poultry  and 
102  had  eaten  mice.  What  per  cent  of  the  birds  had  eaten  poul- 
try and  what  per  cent  mice? 

C.  Problems  on  the  numbers  of  birds. 

1.  A  census  made  of  birds  in  the  eastern  United  States  showed 
that  there  was  an  average  of  6  pairs  of  robins  to  each  farm  of 
58  acres.  There  are  about  4,000,000  farms  east  of  the  Mississippi, 
averaging  93  acres  each.    How  many  robins  are  there  on  the 
farms  east  of  the  Mississippi  River? 

2.  This  census  also  showed  that  for  every  100  robins  there 
were  83  English  sparrows,  49  catbirds,  37  brown  thrashers, 
28  house  wrens,  27  kingbirds,  and  26  bluebirds.  How  many  in- 
dividuals of  each  kind  of  birds  are  there  on  the  farms  east  of  the 
Mississippi  River? 

3.  This  census  also  showed  that  there  was 'an  average  of  one 
pair  of  birds  per  acre.  How  many  birds  are  there  altogether  on 
the  farms  east  of  the  Mississippi  River? 


800  BIRD  FRIENDS 

|    D.  Problems  on  migration. 

1.  Some  Arctic  terns  travel  each  year  from  the  edge  of  the 
Antarctic  continent  to  the  most  northern  part  of  North  Amer- 
ica, a  distance  of  11,000  miles.  It  takes  the  bird  about  20  weeks 
to  make  the  round  trip.  How  far  does  it  travel  in  a  day? 

2.  The  robin  as  a  species  travels  from  Iowa  to  Alaska,  a  dis- 
tance of  3000  miles,  in  78  days.  How  many  miles  does  the  robin 
average  to  travel  in  a  day? 

E.  Problems  on  the  number  of  birds  killed  by  cats. 

1.  A  man  in  Massachusetts  wrote  to  many  people  in  the 
State  asking  about  the  number  of  birds  killed  by  a  single  cat. 
The  answers  received  from  several  hundred  persons  showed  that 
on  an  average  a  cat  kills  33  birds  during  1  month  at  the  height 
of  the  nesting-season,  and  that  each  farm  averages  to  keep  2 
cats.  There  are  in  the  State  37,000  farms.  How  many  birds  do 
the  cats  on  these  farms  kill  each  season? 

2.  Find  the  number  of  cats  kept  in  your  locality,  and  estimate 
the  number  of  birds  killed  each  year  by  these  cats,  assuming,  as 
in  the  previous  problem,  that  each  cat  kills  33  birds  in  a  season. 

F.  Miscellaneous  problem. 

1.  A  study  of  hawks  made  by  the  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  showed  that  5  kinds  were  harmful,  7  kinds  were 
neutral,  and  35  kinds  were  beneficial.  What  per  cent  of  the 
hawks  respectively  are  harmful,  neutral,  and  beneficial? 

Essentials  of  a  good  lesson.  As  previously  men- 
tioned, the  teacher  needs  to  consider  the  matter  of 
materials  in  planning  for  a  bird  lesson;  and  it  is 
also  suggested  that  a  consideration  of  the  three 
following  points  for  each  lesson  or  topic  taught  may 
prove  helpful:  (1)  the  child's  problem;  (2)  the  de- 
velopment of  the  lesson  based  on  the  problem;  and 
(3)  the  application  or  use  by  the  child  of  what  he 
has  been  taught. 

Child's  problem.  The  child's  problem  is  a  means 
of  arousing  the  child's  interest.  It  should  be  a  ques- 


BIRD-PROTECTION  IN  THE  SCHOOLS    301 

tion  that  appeals  to  him,  that  he  is  anxious  to  solve. 
This  should  find  its  origin  in  the  present  needs  and 
interests  of  the  child;  that  is,  it  should  be  a  child's 
and  not  an  adult's  problem.  It  should  be  very  def- 
inite and  specific  and  so  stated  as  to  involve  only 
one  leading  thought.  It  should  be  something  the 
solution  of  which  is  evidently  worth  while.  This 
problem  will  serve,  not  only  as  a  stimulus  to  the 
child,  but  also  as  a  guide  to  both  child  and  teacher 
to  determine  what  particular  phases  of  the  topic 
shall  be  considered.  Hence  it  is  evident  that  the  first 
step  is  to  get  the  problem  clearly  before  the  chil- 
dren so  that  they  may  understand  the  purpose  of 
the  lesson.  In  order  to  interest  the  children  in  the 
problem,  it  should  be  led  up  to  by  questioning  them 
about  things  they  already  know  concerning  some 
topic  closely  related  to  the  problem.  The  problem 
should  be  the  central  thought  of  the  lesson  around 
which  the  points  to  be  taught  may  be  grouped. 

In  the  outline  given  on  the  following  pages,  ques- 
tions are  suggested  which  may  serve  as  problems  for 
the  topic  under  consideration. 

Development.  The  development  should  be  based 
on  the  problem.  The  purpose  of  this  is  to  solve  the 
problem,  and  only  those  points  should  be  included 
which  are  necessary  for  this  solution.  All  other 
points  should  be  omitted.  On  the  other  hand, 
enough  points  should  be  included  to  answer  the 
problem  satisfactorily.  The  problem  will  be  the 


302  BIRD  FRIENDS 

basis,  not  only  for  the  selection  of  the  subject  matter, 
but  for  its  organization  as  well. 

Application.  The  use  of  knowledge  is  the  chief 
end  of  education.  One  of  the  vital  things  in  plan- 
ning a  nature-study  lesson  is  to  consider  how  the 
children  may  be  encouraged  to  make  use  of  what 
they  have  learned.  If  the  problem  does  not  seem 
to  allow  of  any  application,  it  may  well  be  ques- 
tioned whether  it  has  been  wisely  chosen.  The  appli- 
cation should  be  the  doing  of  something  which  in- 
terests the  child  and  which  can  be  done  naturally 
in  his  ordinary  life.  It  should  be  so  clearly  stated 
that  the  child  has  a  very  definite  idea  of  what  is  to 
be  done.  It  is  usually  well  to  suggest  only  a  few 
things  at  a  time,  perhaps  only  one. 
i  Following  are  suggested  some  ways  in  which  ap- 
plication may  be  made  in  bird-study:  (1)  actually 
doing  the  things  taught  in  the  lesson,  as  in  build- 
ing nesting-houses,  feeding  winter  birds,  and  provid- 
ing fountains;  (2)  making  outdoor  observations  on 
the  birds  studied  in  the  schoolroom;  (3)  watching 
others  do  the  things  studied,  such  as  planting  of 
shrubs  in  the  parks  and  the  erection  of  martin- 
houses;  (4)  making  a  collection  of  birds'  nests  (in  the 
fall)  and  of  nesting-houses;  (5)  talking  over  with 
parents  at  home  the  topics  studied;  (6)  cutting  out 
clippings  from  newspapers  and  magazines  relating 
to  the  topic  under  consideration,  and  bringing  them 
to  school. 


BIRD-PROTECTION  IN  THE  SCHOOLS    303 

As  a  definite  illustration  of  these  suggestions  the 
following  lesson  is  given  for  a  third  grade:  - 

1.  Grade  and  season:  third,  spring. 

2.  Topic :  nesting-house  for  wren. 

3.  Materials:  picture  of  house  wren,  wren's  nest,  several  types 
of  wren's  houses. 

4.  The  lesson. 

A.  The  child's  problem. 

1.  Approach  to  child's  problem. 

What  kind  of  a  house  do  you  live  in?  Of  what 
is  it  made?  How  many  floors  are  there?  How 
many  rooms?  How  many  windows  and  doors? 

2.  Statement  of  child's  problem. 

We  will  try  to  learn  to-day  what  kind  of  a  house 
we  should  make  for  a  pah*  of  wrens  to  nest  hi. 
B.  Development. 
Outline  of  points.  Questions. 

1.  Kinds  of         How  many  different  kinds  of  ma- 

materials    terials  can  we  use?  Which  do  you 
to  use.         think  will  be  the  best?  Why? 

2.  Size  of  How  can  we  tell  how  large  to 

house.         make  the  house?  How  large  a  nest 

does  the  wren  make?   How  large 

is  the  bird? 

8.  Shape  of         What  shape  is  your  house?  What 
house.         shapes  can  we  make  the  house 

for  the  wren?  Which  do  you  think 

is  the  best  shape? 

4.  Entrance        How  large   is  the  house  wren? 

hole.  How  large  shall  we  make  the  en- 

A.  Size.      trance?    What  is  the  best  shape 

B.  Shape,  to  make  it?  In  what  part  of  the 

C.  Loca-    house  shall  we  make  it? 

tion. 

5.  Provision        What  shall  we  put  on  the  house 

for  fas-       so  we  can  hang  it  up? 
ten  ing.        Which  of  these  hou  ses  do  you  think 
a  wren  would  like  best?  Why? 


304  BIRD  FRIENDS 

C.  Application. 

How  many  would  like  to  make  a  wren  house  so  as 
to  have  a  pair  of  wrens  nest  in  your  yard?  How  many 
of  you  will  try[  and  find  materials  to  make  it  of, 
such  as  thin  boards,  a  cigar-box,  or  a  chalk-box?  If 
you  cannot  make  the  house  yourself,  ask  some  one 
at  home  to  help  you,  or  you  may  bring  the  material 
to  school  and  I  will  help  you.  See  if  you  can  all 
get  your  houses  finished  in  a  few  days,  and  you  may 
all  bring  your  houses  to  school  a  week  from  to-day, 
and  we  will  have  a  picture  taken  of  those  children 
who  have  their  bird-houses  with  them. 

This  lesson  should  be  followed  by  another,  after 
the  house  is  finished,  on  how  to  put  out  the  house, 
involving  a  consideration  of  the  place  to  put  it,  the 
height,  the  method  of  fastening,  and  protection 
from  cats. 

Two  problems  are  constantly  confronting  the 
teacher:  first,  how  to  teach,  and  second,  what  to 
teach.  Some  suggestions  on  the  first  problem  have 
already  been  given.  A  partial  solution  of  the  second 
problem  is  offered  in  the  following  outline  of  bird- 
study  arranged  by  grades  and  seasons :  - 

OUTLINE  OF  BIRD-STUDY 

(Arranged  by  grades  and  seasons  with  problems  suggested  for  the 
various  topics) 

FIRST  GRADE 
Spring 

1.  Bird  walks. 

2.  Special  study  of  robin  and  bluebird. 
Problems. 

Howcanwetellthebluebirdwhenweseeit?(SeepageS10.) 
Why  do  you  like  the  robin? 


BIRD-PROTECTION  IN  THE  SCHOOLS    305 

SECOND  GRADE 

Spring 

1.  Bird  calendar. 

2.  Bird  walks. 

3.  Special  study  of  the  red-winged  blackbird,  Baltimore  oriole, 
and  chimney  swift. 

Problems. 

How  can  we  tell  the  oriole  (or  blackbird  or  swift)  when 

we  see  it  outdoors? 

How  does  the  swift  differ  from  the  oriole  in  its  habits? 
Which  do  you  think  is  the  most  interesting  bird  of  these 

three? 

THIRD  GRADE 
Winter 

Christmas  dinner  for  the  birds.  (Use  old  Christmas  tree.) 
Problem. 

What  kind  of  Christmas  gifts  do  birds  like? 

Spring 

1.  Bird  calendar. 

2.  Bird  walks. 

3.  Special  study  of  house  wren,  scarlet  tanager   and  rose- 
breasted  grosbeak. 

4.  Building  nesting-houses  for  the  wren. 

5.  Bird  club'organized  and  meetings  held  through  the  term. 
Problems. 

Which  do  you  think  is  the  prettier  bird,  the  tanager  or 

the  grosbeak? 

How  can  you  tell  each  of  these  from  other  birds? 
Why  would  you  like  to  have  a  wren  nest  around  your 

home  this  summer? 
What  kind  of  a  house  shall  we  make  for  a  wren  to  nest 

in?  (See  page  303.) 
What  can  our  bird  club  do  to  help  the  birds? 


306  BIRD  FRIENDS 

FOURTH  GRADE 

Fall 

1.  Departure  of  birds;  comparison  with  bird  life  in  the  spring. 

2.  Bird  club  meets  to  report  on  experiences  with  bird-houses 
the  previous  summer. 

Spring 

1.  Bird  calendar. 

2.  Changes  in  bird  activities  as  the  season  advances. 

3.  Special  study  of  the  birds  of  the  dooryards  and  shade- 
trees,  such  as  blue  jay,  English  sparrow,  robin,  bluebird, 
chipping  sparrow,   house  wren,   Baltimore  oriole,  yellow 
warbler. 

4.  Building  nesting-houses  for  the  wrens. 

5.  Formation  of  bird  clubs;  meetings  through  term. 

6.  Fountains  for  drinking  and  bathing. 
Problems. 

What  changes  do  you  notice  in  bird  activities  as  the 
season  advances? 

Is  the  English  sparrow  a  nuisance  or  is  it  of  value  to  us? 

Of  what  use  is  the  robin  to  us? 

How  is  the  oriole  fitted  for  its  life  in  the  air  and  among 
the  trees? 

How  can  you  tell  the  yellow  warbler  from  the  gold- 
finch? 

How  can  we  provide  water  for  the  birds  during  the 
summer?  (See  page  311.) 

Why  would  you  like  to  form  a  bird  club? 

FIFTH  GRADE 
Winter 

Winter  birds,  such  as  the  blue  jay,  nuthatch,  chickadee, 
woodpecker;  their  identification  and  feeding. 

Problems. 

What  is  the  best  way  of  telling  the  winter  birds  apart? 
How  can  we  help  them?    (See  page  811.) 


BIRD-PROTECTION  IN1  THE  SCHOOLS    307 

Spring 

1.  Special  study  of  birds  of  the  air,  such  as  the  bank  swallow, 
tree  swallow,  barn  swallow,  eave  swallow,  martin,  chimney 
swift,  nighthawk. 

2.  Building  nesting-houses  for  the  bluebird. 

3.  Study  of  nesting-habits  of  birds. 

Nest  —  location,  materials,  construction;  eggs  —  num- 
ber, size,  color,  incubation;  young  birds  —  care 
given  by  parents,  time  in  nest. 

Putting  out  nesting-material. 

4.  Formation  of  bird  clubs  and  meetings  through  term. 
Problems. 

In  what  ways  are  swallows  fitted  for  living  on  the  wing? 

How  can  we  tell  the  different  swallows  apart? 

Of  what  use  are  the  swallows  to  us? 

What  makes  bird-houses  a  better  protection  to  birds 

than  their  natural  nesting-sites? 
How  can  we  get  the  bluebird  to  help  destroy  the  insects 

in  our  garden? 
What  materials  do  birds'  nests  contain  that  we  can  put 

out  for  the  birds  to  use?   (See  page  312.) 
What  care  do  parent  birds  give  their  young? 

SIXTH  GRADE 

Fall 

1.  Migration. 

2.  Nest  census  (after  leaves  fall). 
Problems. 

Which  are  among  the  first  birds  to  leave  and  which  stay 

the  longest? 
How  many  nests  can  we  find  in  the  trees  and  shrubs 

growing  within  two  blocks  of  the  schoolhouse? 

Winter 

1.  Value  of  winter  birds. 

2.  Helping  the  birds  by  feeding  them. 
Problems. 

What  do  the  winter  birds  do  for  us? 
How  can  we  help  the  winter  birds? 


308  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Spring 

1.  Special  study  of  birds  of  the  marsh,  such  as  the  red-winged 
blackbird  and  marsh  wren;  and  of  birds  of  meadows  and 
fields,  such  as  the  bob-white,  horned  lark,  meadowlark, 
vesper  sparrow,  field  sparrow,  cowbird,  bobolink. 

2.  Building  open  nesting-boxes  for  the  robin  and  the  phoebe. 
8.  Migration  —  times,  groups  of  birds  (permanent,  summer, 

and  winter  residents,  and  transient  visitants);  routes, 
distances,  calendar  of  spring  migration. 

4.  Bird-protection;    special   emphasis  on  the  work  of  the 
Audubon  societies.  Formation  of  an  Audubon  Bird  Club. 

5.  Grouping  of  birds  according  to  color  and  size.  (See  pages  312 

and  313.) 
Problems. 

Why  is  the  red-winged  blackbird  an  interesting  bird  to 

study? 

Of  what  use  are  the  birds  of  the  meadows  and  fields  to  us? 
Which  is  the  most  valuable  of  these  birds? 
What  kind  of  a  nesting-box  can  we  make  so  as  to  get 

a  pair  of  robins  or  phcebes  to  nest  in  it?   (See  page  313.) 
How  are  birds  grouped  according  to  the  time  of  the  year 

they  stay  with  us? 
Let  us  try  to  follow  on  a  map  the  travels  of  a  bobolink 

for  a  year. 
What  is  the  Audubon  Society  doing  to  protect  birds? 

(See  page  314.) 
What  can  we  do  in  our  Audubon  Club  to  help  the  birds? 

SEVENTH  GRADE 
Spring 

1.  Birds  of  the  garden  and  orchard,  such  as  the  chickadee, 
cuckoo,  kingbird,  nuthatch,  phcebe,   woodpecker,  gros- 
beak, bluebird. 

2.  Attracting  bird  friends  to  the  yard  and  garden  by  planting 
shrubs  and  providing  fountains. 

3.  Bird  songs;  use  for  identification,  differences,  methods  of 
recording,  time  given. 

4.  Plumage  and  moulting;  differences  in  color  due  to  age, 
sex,  and  season. 


BIRD-PROTECTION  IN  THE  SCHOOLS    309 

Problems. 

Why  is  it  desirable  to  have  birds  around  the  yard  and 

garden? 

Which  is  the  most  interesting  bird? 
How  may  each  of  these  birds  be  identified? 
In  what  ways  is  the  wren  (or  other  bird)  useful? 
What  may  be  done  to  increase  the  number  of  birds 

around  our  homes? 

How  can  we  identify  birds  from  their  songs? 
Through  what  changes  in  plumage  does  a  rose-breasted 

grosbeak  pass  from  the  time  it  is  first  hatched  till  it 

is  two  years  old. 

EIGHTH  GRADE 
Spring 

1.  Special  study  of  birds  of  the  woods,  such  as  warblers, 
thrushes,  woodpeckers,  and  vireos. 

2.  Economic  value  of  birds  to  the  forests  in  destroying  in- 
jurious insects;  value  elsewhere  in  destroying  weed  seeds 
and  rodent  pests. 

3.  Bird-enemies;  natural  enemies,  cat,  man  as  an  enemy. 

4.  Work  of  the  National  Government  to  protect  birds. 

5.  Adaptations  shown  in  bill,  feet,  wings,  and  tail. 
Problems. 

>  In  what  ways  are  birds  useful  to  the  forest? 

In  what  other  ways  are  birds  useful? 

Which  is  greater,  the  good  or  harm  that  birds  do? 

Are  all  of  our  birds  worthy  of  protection? 

How  may  we  identify  the  different  species  of  the  follow- 
ing families;  warblers,  vireos,  woodpeckers,  thrushes? 

What  interesting  habits  of  these  birds  may  we  study 
this  spring? 

Which  have  done  more  harm  to  the  birds,  man  or  the 
birds'  natural  enemies? 

What  is  the  National  Government  doing  to  protect 
birds?  (See  page  315.) 

How  can  we  help  in  the  work  of  protecting  birds? 

How  do  the  water-birds  differ  from  the  land-birds  in  the 
structure  and  use  of  their  feet,  bill,  wings,  and  tail? 


310  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Series  of  lessons.  Following  is  a  series  of  lessons 
based  on  the  outline  already  given.  For  each  lesson, 
the  child's  problem,  the  outline  of  the  points  of  the 
development,  and  the  application  are  suggested:  — 

First  Grade  —  Spring. 
Topic,  the  Bluebird. 
Materials,  colored  picture  of  a  bluebird. 
Child's  problem. 

How  can  we  tell  the  bluebird  when  we  see  it? 
Outline  of  development. 

1.  Color. 

A.  On  back. 

B.  On  breast. 

2.  Size. 
Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  watch  for  a  bluebird  and  report  to 

the  class  the  first  one  they  see. 
Correlated  work. 

Have  children  color  outline  of  bluebird. 
Read  from 

Wiggin  and  Smith,  Posy  Ring,  page  68. 
Wright,  Gray  Lady  and  the  Birds,  page  318. 
Walker,  Our  Birds  and  their  Nestlings,  page  24. 
Second  Grade  —  Spring. 

Topic,  the  Baltimore  Oriole. 

Materials,  colored  picture  and  nest  of  the  oriole. 

Child's  problem. 

Why  would  you  like  to  have  a  pair  of  orioles  nest  in 

your  yard? 
Outline  of  development. 

1.  Pretty  colors. 

2.  Pleasing  song. 

3.  Interesting  nest. 

4.  Care  of  the  young. 
Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  watch  for  the  oriole,  and  when  they 
find  one,  watch  what  it  does  and  report  to  the  class. 


BIRD-PROTECTION  IN  THE  SCHOOLS    311 

Correlated  work. 

Color  outline;  draw  nest  or  make  free-hand  cutting. 
Read  from  some  of  the  following:  — 
Whittier,  Child-Life,  page  64. 
Burroughs,  Songs  of  Nature,  page  74. 
Bailey  and  Lewis,  For  the  Children's  Hour,  page  171. 
Wright,  Gray  Lady  and  the  Birds,  pages  413  and  419. 
Third  Grade  —  Spring. 

Topic,  Wren's  House.  (See  page  303.) 
Fourth  Grade  —  Spring. 
Topic,  Bird  Fountains. 
Materials,  pictures  of  fountains;  receptacles  suitable  for 

fountains,  such  as  pans  and  flower-pot  saucers. 
Child's  problem. 

How  can  we  provide  water  for  the  birds  to  drink  and 

bathe  in  during  the  summer? 
Outline  of  development. 

1.  Kind  of  fountain. 

2.  Depth  of  water. 

3.  Character  of  edge  and  bottom. 

4.  Keeping  fresh  supply. 

5.  Places  to  put  fountain. 
Application. 

Encourage  the  children  to  put  out  the  fountains  around 

their  homes  and  report  the  results  to  the  class, 
Fifth  Grade  —  Winter. 
Topic,  the  Winter  Birds. 
Materials,  samples  of  food  that  may  be  used,  such  as 

grains,  nuts,  etc.;  a  few  simple  feeding-devices,  such  as 

shelves,  hoppers,  and  a  suet-basket. 
Child's  problem. 

How  can  we  help  the  birds  this  winter? 
Outline  of  development. 

1.  Kinds  of  food, 

2.  Methods  of  putting  it  out, 

3.  Birds  that  may  come. 

4.  Taming  birds  to  feed  from  the  hand. 
Application. 

Having  a  feeding-station  put  in  school-yard  and  food 
provided  by  children.  Encourage  children  to  feed  the 
birds  at  their  homes  and  to  report  the  results. 


312  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Correlated  work. 

Have  the  children  in  the  manual-training  department 
make  various  feeding-devices,  such  as  suet-baskets, 
shelves,  hoppers,  moving  counters,  and  a  large  feedery 
for  the  school-yard. 
Fifth  Grade  —  Spring. 
Topic,  Nesting-Material  for  the  Birds. 
Materials,  a  collection  of  nests;  samples  of  things  that 
may  be  put  out,  pictures  of  some  birds  most  apt  to 
use  these  materials,  such  as  the  oriole,  chipping  spar- 
row. 

Child's  problem. 

We  will  examine  these  nests  to  find  what  kind  of  material 
they  contain  that  we  may  put  out  for  the  birds  to  use 
in  making  their  nests. 
Outline  of  development. 

1.  List  of  things  found  in  nests. 

2.  List  of  things  furnished  by  man. 

3.  Relative  abundance  of  materials. 

4.  Birds  making  most  use  of  these  materials. 
Application.    Encourage  the  children  to  put  out  things 

around  their  homes  that  birds  might  use  in  their  nests, 

such  as  string,  yarn,  cotton  batting,  pieces  of  cloth, 

horsehair,  etc. 
Sixth  Grade  —  Spring. 

Topic,  Identification  of  Birds.   (A  review  lesson.) 
Child's  problem. 

What  are  the  most  common  colors  found  on  birds  by 

which  we  may  identify  them? 
Write  on  the  board  a  list  of  all  the  birds  the  children  know. 

Then  put  the  following  table  on  the  board  and  have  the 

children  fill  in  the  names  of  the  birds  in  the  proper 

columns:  — 


Birds  marked  with 

Red 

Blue 

Yellow 

Brown 

Black 

Gray 

BIRD-PROTECTION  IN  THE  SCHOOLS    313 


Sixth  Grade  —  Spring. 

Topic,  Size  of  Birds.  (A  review  lesson.) 
Child's  problem. 

How  do  our  common  birds  compare  in  size  with  the 

English  sparrow  and  the  robin? 

Write  on  the  board  a  list  of  the  birds  that  the  children  know. 
Then  put  the  following  table  on  the  board  and  have  the 
children  fill  in  the  names  of  the  birds  in  the  proper  col- 
umns: — 


Birds  grouped  according  to  size 

Larger  than 
the  robin 

Same  size  as 
the  robin 

Between  the 
robin  and 
the  sparrow 

Same  size  as 
the  sparrow 

Smaller  than 
the  sparrow 

Sixth  Grade  —  Spring. 
Topic,  Open  Boxes  for  Robin  and  Phoebe. 
Materials,  pictures  and  nests  of  the  robin  and  the  phoebe; 

samples  or  pictures  of  open  houses. 
Child's  problem. 

How  may  we  get  a  pair  of  robins  or  phoebes  to  nest  in 
our  yard  and  help  destroy  the  injurious  insects  in  our 
gardens? 
Outline  of  development. 

1.  Kind  of  material  to  make  house  of. 

2.  Size  of  house. 

3.  Shape  of  house. 

4.  Number  of  open  sides. 

5.  Place  to  put  out. 
Application. 

Encourage  children  to  make  them  and  put  out  in  then1 
yards.   Have  one  made  for  the  school-yard. 
Correlated  work. 

These  boxes  may  be  made  in  connection  with  the  manual- 
training  department. 
Sixth  Grade  —  Spring. 

Topic,  Work  of  the  Audubon  Societies. 

Materials,  samples  of  the  leaflets  published  by  the  Aubudon 


314  BIRD  FRIENDS 

Societies;  a  November-December  issue  of  "Bird-Lore," 
which  contains  the  annual  report  of  the  National  Asso- 
ciation of  Audubon  Societies. 

Child's  problem. 

What  are  the  Audubon  Societies  doing  to  protect  birds? 

Outline  of  development. 

1.  Legislation. 

2.  Wardens. 

3.  Lecturers. 

4.  Bird  reservations. 

5.  Publications. 

6.  Junior  Audubon  Societies. 
Application. 

Have  the  children  form  a  Junior  Audubon  Class  to 

help  protect  the  birds. 
Seventh  Grade  —  Spring. 
Topic,  the  Robin. 
Materials,  picture  of  robin,  nest;  pictures  or  samples  of 

insects  eaten. 
Child's  problem. 

Which  is  greater,  the  good  or  the  harm  that  the  robin  does? 
Outline  of  development. 

1.  Good  done. 

A.  Injurious  insects  eaten. 

B.  Pleasure  given  as  an  interesting  bird. 

2.  Harm  done. 

A.  Fruit  eaten. 

3.  Comparison  of  the  two. 
Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  watch  the  robin  and  see  if  they  can 

tell  what  it  eats. 
Eighth  Grade  —  Spring. 
Topic,  Hawks  and  Owls. 
Materials,  pictures  of  hawks  and  owls  and  of  the  animals 

they  eat. 
Child's  problem. 

Should  hawks  and  owls  be  protected? 
Outline  of  development. 

1.  Beneficial  species. 

2.  Neutral  species. 

3.  Harmful  species. 


BIRD-PROTECTION  IN  THE  SCHOOLS    315 

Application. 

Have  the  children  look  up  the  state  law  to  see  which 
hawks  and    owls  are    protected.    Have  the   papers 
watched  and  clippings  made. 
Eighth  Grade. 
Topic,  Work  of  the  National  Government  in  Protecting 

Birds. 

Materials,  sample  of  bulletin  published  by  the  Bureau  of 
Biological   Survey;   map    showing   location    of    bird 
reservations;  copy  of  the  Migratory  Bird  Law. 
Child's  problem. 

What  is  the  National  Government  doing  to  protect  birds? 
Outline  of  development. 

1.  Work  of  the  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey 

2.  Bird  reservations. 

3.  Law  protecting  migratory  birds. 

4.  Tariff  restrictions  on  feathers. 
Application. 

Ask  the  children  to  watch  the  papers  for  items  concerning 
any  of  the  above,  especially  number  3,  and  bring 
clippings  to  class. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

THE  following  is  a  brief  bibliography  to  suggest  a  few  refer- 
ences for  those  who  may  wish  to  find  more  detailed  discussion 
of  the  topics  which  have  necessarily  been  briefly  treated  in  these 
pages. 

t 

MIGRATION 

CHAPMAN.    Handbook  of  Birds  of  Eastern  North  America.   D. 

Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York. 

COWARD.  Migration  of  Birds.  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New  York. 
National  Geographic  Magazine,  April,  1911. 
Bulletin  185  of  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey. 

MUSIC 

CHAPMAN.  Handbook  of  Birds. 
Independent,  vol.  63,  pp.  491-97;  604-09. 
Harper's  Magazine,  vol.  113,  pp.  725-30;  vol.  114,  pp.  766-71. 
MATHEWS.  Field  Book  of  Wild  Birds  and  Their  Music.  G.  P. 
Putnam's  Sons,  New  York. 

NESTS 

DUGMORE.  Bird  Homes.  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  Garden  City, 
N.Y. 

REARING  THE  YOUNG 

CHAPMAN.  Handbook  of  Birds. 

HERRICK.  Home  Life  of  Wild  Birds.    G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons, 
New  York. 

PLUMAGE 

CHAPMAN.  Handbook  of  Birds. 

BEEBE.  The  Bird.  Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  New  York. 


318  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


HOW  TO  KNOW  THE  BIRDS 

JOB.  How  to  Study  Birds.  Outing  Publishing  Co.,  New  York. 

CHAPMAN.  Handbook  of  Birds. 

BAILEY.  Handbook   of  Birds   of  the    Western    United   States. 

Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  Boston. 
HOFFMANN.  A  Guide  to  the  Birds  of  New  England  and  Eastern 

New  York.  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  Boston. 
REED.  Land  Birds.  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  Garden  City,  N. Y. 

ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  BIRDS 

FORBTTSH.    Our  Useful  Birds  and  their  Protection.  Massachu- 
setts State  Board  of  Agriculture,  Boston,  Mass. 
WEED  and  DEARBORN.  Birds  in  Relation  to  Man.  J.  B.  Lippin- 

cott  Co.,  Philadelphia. 

Publications  of  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey,  sold  at 
a  nominal  price  by  the  Superintendent  of  Documents, 
Government  Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.C. 
Bulletin  No.    9.  Cuckoos  and  Shrikes. 
Bulletin  No.  15.  Relation  of  Sparrows  to  Agriculture. 
Bulletin  No.  17.  Birds  of  a  Maryland  Farm. 
Bulletin  No.  21.  The  Bob-White  and  other  Quails  of  the  United 
;  States  in  their  Economic  Relations. 

Bulletin  No.  22.  Birds  known  to  Eat  the  Boll  Weevil. 
Bulletin  No.  23.  The  Horned  Larks  and  their  Relation  to  Agri- 
culture. 

Bulletin  No.  32.  Food  Habits  of  the  Grosbeaks. 
Bulletin  No.  37.  Food  of  the  Woodpeckers  of  the  United  States. 
Bulletin  No.  39.  Woodpeckers  in  Relation  to  Trees  and  Wood 

Products. 

Bulletin  No.  44.  Food  of  Our  More  Important  Flycatchers. 
Bulletin  No.  171.  Food  of  the  Robins  and  Bluebirds  of  the 

United  States. 
Farmers'  Bulletins:  — 

No.  456.  Our  Grosbeaks  and  their  Value  to  Agriculture. 
No.  493.  The  English  Sparrow  as  a  Pest. 
No.  497.  Some  Common  Game,   Aquatic,  and  Rapacious 
Birds  in  Relation  to  Man. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  319 

No.  506.  Food  of  Some  WeU-Known  Birds  of  Forest,  Farm 

and  Garden. 

No.  513.  Fifty  Common  Birds  of  Farm  and  Orchard. 
No.  630.  Some  Common  Birds  Useful  to  Farmers. 
Yearbooks  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture.     In  nearly 
every  Yearbook  since  1894  are  found  articles  dealing  with 
the  economic  value  of  birds. 

ENEMIES  OF  BIRDS 

FORBUSH.  Useful  Birds  and  their  Protection. 
FORBUSH.  Game  Birds,  Wild  Fowl,  and  Shore  Birds. 
FORBUSH.  The  Domestic  Cat.  Economic  Biology  Bulletin  No.  2. 
All  three  published  by  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of 

Agriculture,  Boston,  Mass. 

BAYNES.  Wild  Bird  Guests.  E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co.,  New  York. 
HORNADAY.  Our  Vanishing  Wild  Life.  Charles  Scribner's  Sons, 
New  York. 

BIRD-PROTECTION 

Bird-Lore.  The  issue  for  November-December  in  any  recent  year 
contains  the  annual  report  of  the  National  Association  of 
Audubon  Societies. 

FORBUSH.  Our  Useful  Birds  and  their  Protection. 

HORNADAY.  Our  Vanishing  Wild  Life. 

Reports  of  the  Meriden  (N.H.)  Bird  Club. 

Reports  of  the  Brush  Hill  Bird  Club,  Milton,  Mass. 

Circular  No.  87  of  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Biological  Survey.  Na- 
tional Reservations  for  the  Protection  of  Wild  Life. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  692.   Game  Laws  for  1915. 

Circulars  Nos.  92  and  93  of  the  U.S.  Bureau  of  Biological  Sur- 
vey :  —  Circular  No.  92.  Proposed  Regulations  for  the  Protection 

of  Migratory  Birds. 

Circular  No.  93.  Explanation  of  the  Proposed  Regulations  for 
the  Protection  of  Migratory  Birds. 

ATTRACTING  BIRDS 

BAYXES.  Wild  Bird  Guests.  E.  P.  Dutton,  New  York. 
FORBUSH.  Our  Useful  Birds  and  their  Protection. 
HIESEMANN.   How  to  Attract  and  Protect  Wild  Birds.  National 
Association  of  Audubon  Societies,  New  York. 


320  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

JOB.  Propagation  of  Wild  Birds.  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co., 
Garden  City,  N.Y. 

TRAFTON.  Methods  of  Attracting  Birds.  Houghton  Mifflin  Co., 
Boston. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  621.  How  to  Attract  Birds  in  the  North- 
eastern United  States. 

Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  609.  Bird-Houses  and  How  to  Build  Them. 

Bulletins  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3  of  the  National  Association  of  Au- 
dubon  Societies:  — 

1.  Attracting  Birds  around  the  Home. 

2.  Propagation  of  Upland  Game  Birds. 

3.  Propagation  of  Wild  Water  Fowl. 

National  Geographic  Magazine,  March,  1914.  Found  also  in 
Some  Common  Birds  of  Town  and  Country,  published  by  the 
Magazine. 

TEACHING  BIRD-PROTECTION  IN   THE   SCHOOLS 

COMSTOCK.  Handbook  of  Nature-Study.  Comstock  Publishing 

Co.,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

HODGE.  Nature-Study  and  Life.  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston. 
TRAFTON.  Methods  of  Attracting  Birds.  Houghton  Mifflin  Co., 

Boston. 


INDEX 


INDEX 


Activities  of  children,  286. 

American  Ornithologists'  Union, 
175. 

Application  of  lessons,  302. 

Arithmetic  and  bird-study,  208. 

Audubon  classes,  junior,  182-84, 
292. 

Audubon  food-house,  255. 

Audubon  Magazine,  175. 

Audubon  Societies,  National  Asso- 
ciation of,  bird  sanctuaries,  185; 
classes  of  membership,  177;  de- 
partment of  applied  ornithology, 
184;  egret-protection,  179;  field 
agents,  184;  formation  of,  176; 
junior  Audubon  classes,  182-84;  j 
legislation,    178-79;    lesson   on,  j 
313-14;  needs  of,  185;  publica-  | 
tions  of,  180-81 ;  summer  courses 
in  bird-study,  184;  warden  work, 
179. 

Audubon  Societies,  State,  186. 

Audubon  Society,  first,  174-75. 

Auk,  great,  117. 

Barrows,  Prof.  Walter  $.,  153. 

Baynes,  Ernest  Harold,  9,  83,  98,  ; 
155,  209,  217,  231,  256,  263. 

Beneficial  birds,  110,  112. 

Berlepsch,  Baron  von,  228. 

Bird  clubs;  activities  of,  216-17;  for 
children,  292;  number  of,  217. 

Bird  day,  189,  296. 

Bird-Lore,  58,  123,  140,  151,  180, 
181. 

Bird-study,  attractions  of,  48; 
equipment  for,  50;  how  to  study, 
55;  what  to  study,  56;  when  to 
study,  54;  where  to  study,  53. 

Blackbird,  crow  (grackle),  dates  of 
nesting  and  migration,  62;  eco- 
nomic status  of,  112;  grain  eaten 
by,  101;  nest-robber,  108;  num- 


ber and  kinds  of  insects  eaten  by, 
74;  table  of  food,  115;  weed  seeds 
eaten  by,  87,  88. 

Blackbird,  red-winged,  dates  of 
migration  and  nesting,  62;  eco- 
nomic status  of,  112;  feeding 
young,  36;  food  of,  115;  grain 
eaten  by,  101;  nest  of,  28;  num- 
ber of  insects  eaten  by,  74 ;  sexual 
differences  in  color,  46;  song  of, 
16;  weed  seeds  eaten  by,  87. 

Bluebird,  attacked  by  English 
sparrow,  153;  dates  of  migration 
and  nesting,  62;  destruction  in 
winter,  133;  economic  status  of, 
112;  food  of,  115;  killed  by  cats, 
140;  kinds  of  insects  eaten  by, 
74;  lesson  on,  310;  nesting-box 
for,  243;  number  of  broods  of, 
32;  number  in  United  States, 
126;  plumage  of  nestlings,  45; 
sexual  differences  in  color,  46; 
song  of,  23;  table  of  nesting- 
habits,  35. 

Bobolink,  change  in  plumage  of, 
45;  dates  of  migration  and  nest- 
ing, 62;  economic  status  of,  112; 
harm  done  in  rice-fields  by,  102- 
03;  killed  in  South  Carolina,  168; 
location  of  nest,  27;  migration- 
route  of,  8;  song  of,  23;  winter 
home  of,  6. 

Bob-white,  call  of,  22;  date  of  nest- 
ing, 61;  destruction  in  winter, 
132-33;  economic  status  of,  113; 
food  of,  115;  in  captivity,  65;  in- 
sects eaten  by,  74,  75,  83;  killed 
in  Louisiana  and  Alabama,  168; 
nest  of,  27;  number  killed  by 
cats,  140;  rearing  of,  273;  weed 
seeds  eaten  by,  87.  88. 

Bond.  Frank,  158. 

Bounties,  93. 


324 


INDEX 


Boys,  shooting  by,  165. 

Bradley,  Guy,  171. 

Brooding  young,  37. 

Broods,  number  of,  82. 

Brush  Hill  Bird  Club,  constitution 

of,  212-13;  exhibit  by,  211-12. 
Bunting,  indigo,  dates  of  migration 

and  nesting,  62. 
Bureau  of  Biological  Survey,  63, 

73,  74,  75,  87,  88,  94,  95,  105, 

114,  124,  192,  264,  265. 
Burns,  Frank  L.,  124. 
Burroughs,  John,  25,  28,  139,  214. 
Burroughs  Nature  Club,  214-15. 

Calendar,  for  attracting  birds,  269; 
for  children,  284. 

Call-notes,  25. 

Cardinal,  food  of,  115;  kinds  of  in- 
sects eaten  by,  74;  song  of  fe- 
male, 13;  weed  seeds  eaten  by, 
87. 

Carnegie  foundation,  220. 

Cat,  dealers  in  traps  for,  247; 
disease-carrier,  146-48;  enemy 
of  nestlings,  43;  licensing,  148; 
method  of  doing  harm,  135-36; 
number  kept  per  family,  142; 
number  of  birds  killed  by,  139- 
46;  protection  of  nesting-houses 
from,  39-40;  protection  of  win- 
ter birds  from,  258;  remedies, 
148-51. 

Catbird,  dates  of  migration  and 
nesting,  62;  economic  status, 
112;  feeding  young,  36;  food  of, 
115;  fruit  eaten  by,  99;  nest  of, 
28,  29;  number  in  United  States, 
126;  number  killed  by  cats,  140. 

Cedar-bird,  economic  status  of, 
112;  food  of,  115;  fruit  eaten  by, 
99;  growth  of  nestlings,  35;  table 
of  nesting-habits,  35,  36. 

Census,  by  Bureau  of  Biological 
Survey,  57,  124;  by  Bird-Lore, 
58,  123. 

Chapman,  Frank  M.,  43,  114,  137, 
168,  180. 

Chebec  (least  flycatcher);  benefi- 


cial insects  eaten  by,  106;  eco- 
nomic states  of,  112;  food  of, 
115;  kinds  of  insects  eaten  by, 
74;  nest  of,  28. 

Chewink  (towhee),  dates  of  mi- 
gration and  nesting,  62;  song  of, 
20. 

Chickadee,  date  of  nesting,  61 ;  eco- 
nomic status,  113;  nesting-box 
for,  243;  number  of  insects  eaten 
by,  73, 75;  number  killed  by  cats, 
140;  plumage  of  nestlings,  45. 

Chicken,  prairie,  21. 

Child's  problem,  300. 

Coloration,  protective,  46. 

Colors  of  birds,  lesson  on,  312. 

Cooke,  Wells  W.,  5. 

Correlation  of  bird-study,  296. 

Counter-shading,  14. 

Courtship,  26. 

Cowbird,  dates  of  migration  and 
nesting,  62;  economic  status, 
112;  food  of,  115;  grain  eaten 
by,  101;  nesting-habits  of,  31, 
108;  weed  seeds  eaten  by,  87. 

Crane,  whooping,  120. 

Creeper,  brown,  dates  of  migration, 
61. 

Crow,  call-notes  of,  25;  date  of 
nesting,  61;  economic  status  of, 
112;  enemy  of  other  birds,  129, 
131;  food  of,  115;  grain  eaten  by, 
101;  nest-robber,  108. 

Cuckoo,  economic  status  of,  113; 
food  of,  115;  number  and  kinds 
of  insects  eaten  by,  73,  74. 

Curlew,  Eskimo,  120. 

Dove,  mourning,  dates  of  migra- 
tion and  nesting,  62;  economic 
status  of,  112;  food  of,  115;  weed 
seeds  eaten  by,  87,  88. 

Dowitcher,  120. 

Dramatization,  284. 

Duck,  Labrador,  117. 

Ducks,  attracting,  276;  number 
killed  in  Louisiana,  168;  rear- 
ing, 275. 

Duets  of  birds,  19. 


INDEX 


325 


Dutcher,  William,  169.  177,  256. 
Dyke,  A.  C.,  139. 

Egg-collecting,  171-72. 


Egret,  American,  120,  171. 
Entrance  hole  of  nesting-boxes,  lo- 
cation of,  235;  size  of,  234-35. 
Extinct  birds,  116. 

Fairbanks,  Cornelia  T.,  150. 

Feeding  winter  birds,  by  children, 
290;  dealers  in  apparatus  for, 
247-48;  from  hand,  251;  in  Au- 
dubon  food-house,  255;  in  hop- 
per, 255;  in  school-yard,  290; 
in  suet-box,  254;  in  weather- 
cock food-house,  256;  in  window 
box,  256;  kinds  of  food,  252;  les- 
son on,  311;  methods  of,  253; 
need  of,  250-51;  on  ground,  253; 
on  moving  counter,  256-58;  on 
shelves,  253. 

Field  agents,  184. 

Field,  George  W.,  143. 

Field-glasses,  51. 

Field  trips  with  children,  291. 

Fisher,  Dr.  A.  K.,  94,  132,  138,  143. 

Flagg,  Wilson,  23. 

Flicker,  dates  of  migration  and 
nesting,  62;  food  of,  115;  method 
of  feeding  young,  37;  nesting- 
box  for,  243;  number  and  kinds 
of  insects  eaten  by,  74;  number 
killed  by  cats,  140;  song  of,  16. 

Fly,  birds  eating,  81,  83. 

Flycatcher,  crested,  food  of,  115; 
kinds  of  insects  eaten  by,  74; 
nest  of,  29. 

Flycatcher,  least.  See  Chebec. 

Food-house,  Audubon,  255;  weath- 
ercock, 256. 

Food  of  birds,  amount  of,  72;  how 
determined,  64-68;  table  of,  115. 

Forbush,  Edward  H.,  73,  88,  121, 
122,  137,  138,  139,  140,  141,  143, 
147,  156,  165,  224,  232,  237,  240, 
244,  246,  249. 

Ford,  Henry,  218. 


Foreigners,  shooting  by,  166. 

Fountains,  concrete,  261-62;  deal- 
ers in,  247-48;  essentials  of,  260; 
in  school-yard,  291;  lesson  on, 
311;  location  of,  260. 

Foxes,  129. 

Fruit-eaters,  99. 

Fruits,  kinds  eaten  by  birds,  265; 
succession  of,  267;  table  of  fruit- 
ing-periods,  260. 

Game-birds,  decrease  of,  120. 

Game  laws,  189-91. 

Game  preserves,  218-20. 

Games  for  children,  282. 

Goldfinch,  American,  date  of  nest- 
ing, 61;  plumage  of  nestling,  45; 
song  of,  23. 

Goose,  Canada,  275. 

Goshawk,  94. 

Grackle.    See  Blackbird,  crow. 

Grain-eaters,  100. 

Grinnell,  George  B.,  174. 

Grosbeak,  rose-breasted,  dates  of 
migration  and  nesting,  62;  eco- 
nomic status  of,  113;  feeding 
young,  36;  food  of,  115;  number 
and  kinds  of  insects  eaten  by,  74; 
sexual  differences  in  color,  46; 
song  of,  13,  23;  weed  seeds  eaten 
by,  87;  winter  home  of,  6. 

Grouse,  ruffed,  location  of  nest  of, 
27;  number  killed  by  cats,  140; 
protective  coloring,  47;  rearing, 
274. 

Gull,  Franklin's,  number  of  insects 
eaten  by,  74. 

Gulls,  79. 

Handwork  for  children,  281. 
Hawk,  broad-winged,  96. 
Hawk,  Cooper's,  96,  103,  107,  111. 
Hawk,  duck,  94. 
Hawk,  fish  (osprey),  33. 
Hawk,  marsh,  96,  98,  103. 
Hawk,  pigeon,  95,  96,  107. 
Hawk,  red-shouldered,  96. 
Hawk,  red-tailed,  96,  103. 
Hawk,  Swainson's,  97. 


326 


INDEX 


Hawks,  beneficial,  94;  enemies  of 
other  birds,  129;  food-chart  of, 
96;  harmful,  94;  money  value  of, 
97. 

Health,  human,  and  birds,  81. 

Henshaw,  H.  W.,  90,  97,  114,  138, 
162. 

Herbaceous  plants,  268. 

Heron,  snowy,  120. 

Heronry,  277. 

Hodge,  Clifton  H.,  157,  274. 

Hopper,  automatic,  255. 

Hornaday,  W.  T.,  121,  138,  167. 

Hummingbird,  dates  of  migration 
and  nesting,  62;  killed  by  cats, 
140;  method  of  feeding  young,  37; 
nest  of,  28;  winter  home  of,  5. 

Hunting  contests,  164. 

Identification  of  birds,  49. 

Incubation,  33. 

Injurious  birds,  110,  111. 

Insects,  beneficial  destroyed  by 
birds,  106;  harm  done  by,  68; 
kinds  eaten  by  birds,  74;  nature's 
check  on,  70;  number  eaten  by 
birds,  73,  74,  77,  78;  power  of  re- 
production of,  70. 

Jay,  blue,  date  of  nesting,  61 ;  eco- 
nomic status,  112;  enemy  of 
other  birds,  129,  131;  food  of, 
115;  nest-robber,  108;  number 
killed  by  cats,  140. 

Job,  Herbert  K.,  184,  272,  273,  278. 

Johnson,  C.  A.,  166. 

Judd,  Sylvester  D.,  80,  110. 

Junco,  slate-colored,  dates  of  mi- 
gration, 61;  food  of,  115;  number 
killed  by  cats,  140. 

Kennard,  Frederic  H.,  255,  267. 

Killdeer,  insects  eaten  by,  82. 

Kingbird,  beneficial  insects  eaten 
by,  106;  dates  of  migration  and 
nesting,  61;  economic  status  of, 
112;  food  of,  115;  kinds  of  insects 
eaten  by,  74,  82;  number  in 
United  States,  126;  table  of 


nesting-habits,    35,    36:    winter 

home  of,  6. 
Kingfisher,  dates  of  migration  and 

nesting,  61;  nest  of,  28;  table  of 

nesting-habits,  35. 
Knot,  120. 

Lacey  Act,  193. 

Ladd,  Neil  W.,  136,  156,  246. 

Lark,  horned,  food  of,  115;  kinds  of 
insects  eaten,  74,  83;  weed  seeds 
eaten  by,  87. 

Laysan  Island,  tragedy  on,  170. 

Legislation,  history  of,  178,  188- 
89. 

Lessons  on  birds,  on  Audubon  So- 
ciety, 313-14;  on  Baltimore  ori- 
ole, 310-11;  on  bluebird,  310; 
on  colors  of  birds,  312;  on  foun- 
tains, 311;  on  hawks  and  owls, 
314-15;  on  national  government, 
315;  on  nesting-box  for  wren, 
303-04;  on  nesting-materials, 
312;  on  open  box  for  robin  and 
phoebe,  313;  on  robin,  314;  on 
size  of  birds,  313;  on  winter  birds, 
311-12. 

Liberty  Bell  Bird  Club,  215-56, 
293,  295. 

Litchfield,  E.  H.,  220. 

Literature  and  birds,  297. 

Longspur,  Lapland,  destruction  of, 
133-34. 

Mcllhenny,  Edward  A.,  219,  277. 

McLean,  George  P.,  194. 

Market  shooting,  167-68. 

Marsh  Island  reservation,  220. 

Martin,  purple,  attacked  by  Eng- 
lish sparrow,  153;  dates  of  mi- 
gration and  nesting,  61;  destruc- 
tion by  storms,  134;  house  for, 
243-44;  house  in  school-yard, 
289;  insects  eaten  by,  82,  83. 

Mathews,  F.  Schuyler,  17. 

Meadowlark,  dates  of  migration 
and  nesting,  62;  economic  status 
of,  112;  food  of,  115;  number 
killed  by  cats,  140;  trio  by,  20. 


INDEX 


327 


Meriden  Bird  Club,  209-10. 

Merriam,  Dr.  C.  Hart,  93,  97,  192. 

Migration,  causes  of,  10;  changes 
due  to,  2;  distances  of,  4;  rec- 
ords of,  1;  regularity  of,  3; 
routes  of,  7;  speed  of,  6;  time  of, 
7,  61.  62. 

Migratory  bird  law,  advantages 
of,  196-97;  passage  of,  193-95; 
regulations  for,  197-202;  text 
of,  195-96. 

Miller,  Newton,  155. 

Millinery,  birds  killed  for,  168-70. 

Minnetonka  Bird  Sanctuary,  220- 
21. 

Mosquitoes,  eaten  by  birds,  81-82. 

Moulting,  44. 

Moving  counter,  256-58. 

Music  of  birds,  recording,  16;  simi- 
larity to  human  music,  18. 

National  Government,  work  of, 
192-208;  lesson  on,  315. 

Nesting-boxes,  birds  using,  226-27; 
cement,  231;  comparison  of 
types,  231;  dealers  in,  246-48; 
entrance  hole,  234-35;  for  chil- 
dren, 287;  height  to  put  out,  238; 
in  school-yard,  289;  lesson,  303; 
location  of,  237;  method  of 
fastening,  238;  movable  covers, 
235;  need  of,  225;  open,  241-42, 
313;  pottery,  231;  putting  out, 
236;  protection  from  cats,  239; 
protection  from  English  sparrow, 
240;  roofing-paper,  231;  size  and 
shape  of,  233;  table  of,  243;  time 
to  put  out,  236;  tin,  230;  types  of, 
227. 

Nesting-dates,  61-62. 

Nesting-habits,  study  of,  57. 

Nesting-materials,  244-45;  lesson 
on,  312. 

Nests,  location  of,  27;  materials  in, 
29;  shape  of,  29;  time  of  building, 
27,  30. 

Nighthawk,  dates  of  migration  and 
nesting,  61;  economic  status  of, 
113;  kinds  of  insects  eaten  by, 


74,  82;  table  of  nesting-habits, 
35;  winter  home  of,  6. 
Nuthatch,  white-breasted,  date  of 
nesting,  61;  song  of,  16. 

Oldys,  Henry,  18. 

Oriole,  Baltimore,  dates  of  migra- 
tion and  nesting,  61;  economic 
status  of,  113;  food  of,  115;  les- 
son on,  310;  nest  of,  28,  29; 
nesting-material  for,  245;  num- 
ber killed  by  cats,  140;  sexual 
differences  in  color,  46;  table  of 
nesting-habits,  35,  36;  winter 
home  of,  5. 

Ornithologists,  221. 

Osborne,  Dr.  Caroline  A.,  147. 

Osprey,  33. 

Outline  of  bird-study,  304-09. 

Oven-bird,  dates  of  migration  and 
nesting,  62;  nest  of,  27;  song  of, 
16. 

Owl,  barn,  92. 

Owl,  barred,  96, 103. 

Owl,  great  horned,  93,  95,  96, 103, 
107. 

Owl,  long-eared,  92,  96. 

Owl,  screech,  96. 

Owl,  short-eared,  96. 

Owls,  beneficial,  94;  food-chart  of, 
96;  money  value  of,  97. 

Parks,  Military,  207;  National, 
207. 

Paroquet,  Carolina,  120. 

Pearson,  T.  Gilbert,  138,  177. 

Pease,  Charles  H.,  138. 

Pewee,  wood,  beneficial  insects 
eaten  by,  106;  dates  of  migra- 
tion and  nesting,  62;  economic 
status  of,  112;  food  of,  115;  kinds 
of  insects  eaten  by,  74,  82,  83; 
song  of,  18. 

Phalarope,  Northern,  insects  eaten 
by,  82. 

Pheasants,  rearing,  274. 

Phoebe,  beneficial  insects  eaten  by, 
106;  dates  of  migration  and  nest- 
ing, 62;  economic  status  of,  112; 


INDEX 


food  of,  115;  kinds  of  insects 
eaten  by,  74,  82,  83;  nest  of,  29, 
32;  open  shelter  for,  242;  table  of 
nesting-habits,  35,  36. 

Photography,  59. 

Pictures  of  birds,  280. 

Pigeon,  passenger,  117-20. 

Plover,  golden,  120. 

Plover,  upland,  120. 

Poultry,  destruction  of  by  birds, 
103. 

Pratt,  Albert  H.,  144. 

Quail.   See  Bob-white. 

Redstart,  and  cowbird,  31;  dates 
of  nesting  and  migration,  62; 
number  of  insects  eaten  by,  73. 

Regurgitation,  37. 

Reservations,  national  bird,  204- 
07;  private,  218-21;  state,  208. 

Residents,  permanent,  61 ;  summer, 
2,  62;  winter,  2,  62. 

Rice-fields,  bobolink  in,  102. 

Roberts,  Dr.  T.  S.,  133. 

Robin,  attacked  by  English  spar- 
row, 153;  dates  of  migration  and 
nesting,  62;  economic  status  of, 
112;  food  of,  66,  67,  115;  fruit 
eaten  by,  99;  lessons  on,  313, 
314;  nest  of,  29;  number  and 
kinds  of  insects  eaten  by,  73,  74; 
number  in  United  States,  126; 
number  killed  by  cats,  140; 
number  of  broods,  32;  open 
houses  for,  242;  slaughtered  in 
South,  166;  song  of,  17,  23; 
speed  of  migration  of,  6;  table  of 
nesting-habits,  35,  36;  tune  of 
singing,  14;  time  to  build  nest,  30. 

Rodents,  harm  done  by,  91. 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  204. 

Sage,  Mrs.  Russell,  220. 

Sanctuaries,  185;  Birdcraft  Sanc- 
tuary, 186-87. 

Sandpiper,  pectoral,  120. 

Sapsucker,  economic  status  of ,  1 1 1 ; 
harm  done  to  trees  by,  104-06. 


Shaler,  Nathaniel  S.,  151. 

Shrike,  107. 

Shrubs,  for  food,  264;  for  nesting- 
sites,  264;  for  shelter,  263. 

Sight  of  birds,  9. 

Size  of  birds,  lesson  on,  313. 

Songs,  classification  of,  21;  season 
of,  13:  study  of,  56;  time  of  day 
of,  14;  variations  in,  23. 

Sparrow,  chipping,  dates  of  migra- 
tion and  nesting,  62;  food  of, 
115;  nest  of,  28,  29;  number 
killed  by  cats,  140;  period  of 
incubation,  33;  time  of  singing, 
14;  weed  seeds  eaten  by,  87, 
88. 

Sparrow,  English,  economic  status, 
111;  enemy  of  other  birds,  129; 
food  of,  115;  grain  eaten  by, 
101;  nest-robber,  108;  number 
in  United  States,  126;  number 
killed  by  cats,  140;  number  of 
broods,  32;  poisoning,  156-59; 
protection  of  nesting-houses 
from,  240-41 ;  protection  of  win- 
ter birds  from,  258-59;  shooting, 
155-56;  table  of  nesting-habits, 
35;  trapping,  159-60;  ways  in 
which  harmful,  152-54. 

Sparrow,  field,  duet  by,  20;  food 
of,  115;  nest  of,  28 ;  weed  seeds 
eaten  by,  88. 

Sparrow,  song,  dates  of  migration 
and  nesting,  62;  food  of,  115; 
number  killed  by  cats,  140;  open 
shelter  for,  242;  table  of  nesting- 
habits,  35,  36;  time  of  singing, 
14;  weed  seeds  eaten  by,  87. 

Sparrow,  tree,  dates  of  migration, 
61;  weed  seeds  eaten  by,  88,  89. 

Sparrow,  vesper;  dates  of  migra- 
tion and  nesting,  62;  food  of,  115; 
song  of,  23;  weed  seeds  eaten  by, 
87. 

Sparrow,  white-throated,  dates  of 
migration,  61 ;  song  of,  17. 

Sportsmen,  shooting  by,  162-65. 

Squirrel,  red,  42,  130. 

Starling,  108. 


INDEX 


329 


State  governments,  work  of,  188- 
91. 

Suet-box,  254. 

Swallow,  bank,  insects  eaten  by, 
82;  nest  of,  28. 

Swallow,  barn,  dates  of  migration 
and  nesting,  62;  insects  eaten  by, 
82,  83;  nest  of  29;  number  killed 
by  cats,  140;  open  shelter  for, 
242;  winter  home  of,  6. 

Swallow,  cliff,  insects  eaten  by,  82; 
route  of  migration,  8. 

Swallow,  tree,  feeding  young,  36; 
insects  eaten  by,  82;  nesting-box 
for,  243. 

Swallow,  violet-green,  insects  eaten 
by,  82. 

Swan,  trumpeter,  120. 

Swift,  chimney,  dates  of  migration 
and  nesting,  62;  insects  eaten  by, 
82;  nest  of,  28;  return  to  nesting- 
site,  28. 

Tanager,  scarlet,  dates  of  migra- 
tion and  nesting,  62;  insects 
eaten  by,  73;  moulting  of,  44,  45, 
46. 

Tariff  regulations  on  plumes,  203- 
04. 

Tern,  Arctic,  5. 

Thrasher,  brown,  dates  of  migra- 
tion and  nesting,  62;  economic 
status  of,  112;  food  of,  115;  fruits 
eaten  by,  99;  number  in  United 
States,  126;  song  of,  23. 

Thrush,  hermit,  location  of  nest  of, 
27;  song  of,  23,  24. 

Thrush,  wood,  dates  of  migration 
and  nesting,  62;  food  of,  115; 
song  of,  19,  24;  table  of  nesting- 
habits,  35. 

Towhee.   See  Chewink. 

Traps,  for  cats,  247;  for  sparrows, 
159-60,  247. 

Trees,  damaged  by  sapsucker,  104. 

Trios  among  birds,  20. 

Turkeys,  274. 

Uehling,  Edward,  257-58. 


Veery,  dates  of  migration  and  nest- 
ing, 62;  song  of,  23. 

Vireo,  red-eyed,  dates  of  migration 
and  nesting,  62;  duration  of  sing- 
ing, 14;  feeding  young,  36;  num- 
ber of  insects  eaten  by,  73;  win- 
ter home  of,  6. 

Vireo,  warbling,  dates  of  migration 
and  nesting,  62. 

Vireo,  yellow-throated,  insects 
eaten  by,  82,  83. 

Visitants,  transient,  2. 

Walter,  Mrs.  Alice  H.,  151. 

Warbler,  chestnut-sided,  song  of, 
16. 

Warbler,  Nashville,  number  of  in- 
sects eaten  by,  73. 

Warbler,  yellow,  and  cowbird,  31: 
dates  of  migration  and  nesting, 
62;  insects  eaten  by,  73,  82; 
number  killed  by  cats,  140. 

Ward,  Charles  W.,  219. 

Water-plants  for  ducks,  276. 

Waxwing,  cedar.    See  Cedar-bird. 

Weasels,  129. 

Weathercock  food-house,  256. 

Weed  seeds,  dispersal  of,  85;  kinds 
eaten  by  birds,  87;  number  eaten 
by  birds,  88;  number  of,  85;  vi- 
tality of,  85. 

Weeds,  harm  done  by,  84. 

Weeks,  John  W.,  194. 

Whip-poor-will,  insects  eaten  by, 
82. 

Willet,  120. 

Window  box,  256. 

Window  shelf,  254. 

Winter  birds,  feeding,  249-59; 
study  of,  58;  lesson  on,  311-12. 

Winter  homes  of  birds,  5. 

Woodcock,  47,  120. 

Woodpecker,  downy,  date  of  nest- 
ing, 61;  food  of,  115;  nesting- 
box  for,  243;  number  and  kinds 
of  insects  eaten  by,  74. 

Woodpecker,  hairy,  food  of,  115; 
number  and  kinds  of  insects 
eaten  by,  74. 


330 


INDEX 


Woodpecker,  red-headed,  economic 
status  of,  112;  food  of,  115;  kinds 
of  insects  eaten  by,  74;  nesting- 
box  for,  243;  plumage  of  nestlings 
of,  46. 

Worthington,  Charles  C.,  219. 

Wren,  Bewick's,  song  of,  20. 

Wren,  house,  attacked  by  English 
sparrow,  153;  dates  of  migration 
and  nesting,  62;  duration  of  song- 
period,  14:  economic  status  of, 
113;  food  of,  115;  lesson  on,  303- 
04;  nest  of,  29;  nesting-box  for, 
243;  number  in  United  States, 
126;  number  killed  by  cats,  140; 


number  of  broods  of,  32;  rearing 
young,  38^1;  song  of,  22;  table 
of  nesting-habits,  35,  36;  time  of 
building  nest,  30. 

Wren,  marsh,  dates  of  migration 
and  nesting,  62;  insects  eaten  by, 
76;  nest  of,  28,  30. 

Wren-tit,  insects  eaten  by,  82. 

Yellow-throat,  Maryland,  dates  of 
migration  and  nesting,  62;  num- 
ber of  insects  eaten  by,  73;  song 
of,  16. 

Young  birds,  feeding,  35;  food  of, 
36;  time  in  nest,  34;  value  of,  76. 


CAMBRIDGE  .  MASSACHUSETTS 
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THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
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OCT26  1937 

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